BUDDHIST COALITION FOR SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT

PRACTITIONER’S HANDBOOK

SOTH PLAINGARM

CONTENTS

Preface

Acknowledgments

Abbreviations

Roles of Monks and Monasteries in Cambodian Society and Community

Chapter One: BASIC TEACHINGS OF THE BUDDHA

THE FOUR NOBLE TRUTHS

THE NOBLE EIGHTFOLD PATH

1.1 Following The Buddha's Teachings

1. No killing

2. No stealing

3. No sexual misconduct

4. No lying

5. No intoxicants

1.2 The Buddhist Community

1.3 The Shaven Head, Robe, And Offering Bowl

Chapter Two: ROLE OF BUDDHISM IN CAMBODIAN LIFE

2.1 Samdech Sangha Raja Jhotañano Chuon Nath

2.2 Samdech Preah Maha Ghosananda

2.3 Some Dilemmas of buddhism

2.4 Socially Engaged Buddhism:

2.5 “Engagement inspires vision, and vision inspires engagement.”

Chapter Three: CONFLICT ANALYSIS

3.1 COMPATIBILITY SQUARE

JOHARI WINDOW￼

3.2 Johari Window

3.3 Using Johari Window

3.4 ABC Triangle

3.5 Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs

Chapter Four: Peacebuilding Activities at the Grassroots

Peacebuilding Activities at the Middle Level

Peacebuilding Activities at the Top Level

4.1 Peacebuilding Capacity

4.2 A Case Study: Peacebuilding in Cambodia: The Role of Religion1

4.3 Practical Interfaith for peace

4.4 Interfaith Dialogue

Chapter Five: Understanding Nonviolence

5.1 Gandhi's Non-Violence

5.2 Martin Luther King's Non-violent Struggle

5.3 Nonviolent Action

Chapter Six: Conflict Resolution and Religion

6.1 Peace Paradigms: Five Approaches to Peace

6.2 Social functions traditionally performed by religious actors

6.3 Buddhism: A Quest for Unity and Peace

1. Glossary

2. References

Notes

PREFACE

This handbook and resource are for participants to learn about “Buddhist Engagement in Social Development and Peacebuilding”. It introduces key approaches and lessons to guide practitioners, especially monks, to deal with social change positively and peacefully. The handbook brings important lessons for participants to consider as a useful tool for their learning. The purpose is to improve the knowledge of engaged Buddhists to provide practitioners with basic conflict transformation skills and peacebuilding applications to reduce violent social issues.

The handbook is a valuable instrument showing how to integrate Buddhist practice and peacebuilding into a unique learning pathway. Both resources are combined to provide practitioners with the idea of creating flexible learning methods at once. It will also become a dynamic tool in response to practitioners who want to enhance their practical, social, and peacebuilding knowledge. Since the understanding of Buddhism alone is not enough, it is the role of Buddhists and monasteries to incorporate learning about other concepts and practices to become the driving force contributing to the culture of peace and social justice.

The handbook aims to develop practitioners' capacity and build a growing pool of human resources who wish to learn in this field. The learning process also aims to accomplish building relationships within and between Buddhist communities. It covers the basics, and further resources are available through the broader program, which goes more in-depth on specific topics. This has been shown, at times, to have resulted in impacts on the effectiveness of monastic development in contributing to social work and the vision of supporting socio-economic development, peace, and social change in Cambodia.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

I want to acknowledge, with considerable thanks, donors for their funding and support to BCSD core members and administration support for all their efforts in making this process a great success; all monks, monasteries, trainers, and participants who attended the training processes.

I would also like to thank supporters who spent their effort and time to help develop this learning handbook and provided insightful comments and feedback on this manual.

I want to sincerely thank and be grateful to Sue William, who helped proofread the materials, editing and provide advice for improvements in different parts of the book.

Last but not least, I want to thank CPCS, which allows me to publish this practitioner’s Handbook under its auspices.

Soth Plai Ngarm

ABBREVIATIONS

BCSD Buddhist Coalition for Social Development

ACT Alliance for Conflict Transformation

BKSN Buddhists and Khmer Society Network

MPT Mlup Preah Thor

MPC Mlup Promvihearthor Centre

BFD Buddhism for Development

SS Santi Sena

PB Peace Building

BP Buddhism and Peacebuilding

CS Civil Society

CT Conflict Transformation

NGO Non-Governmental Organisations

ROLES OF MONKS AND MONASTERIES IN CAMBODIAN SOCIETY AND COMMUNITY

At the heart of this training program on the Buddhist roles of monks and monasteries in Cambodia is the desire to allow participants, especially monks, to inquire into this subject from as many different points of view as possible. Participants are encouraged to examine their own cultural and intellectual assumptions as they participate in the training environment. This is the only program that places participants directly into Buddhist practice in society and community development.

This training course intends to introduce Buddhist roles' principal concepts and practices in Cambodian society. We will spend the first part studying the fundamental philosophical ideas and roles of Cambodian monks in contributing to community development. During the following parts of the course, we will examine the practical experiences of Buddhist engagement in social issues worldwide, and specifically in Cambodian society.

We will also consider the development of Buddhist engagement systems regarding the changing historical and intellectual situations in which Buddhism found itself in India and was brought into Cambodia. The Buddhist doctrines were never intended to be purely theoretical or merely speculative undertakings; therefore, it will be appropriate to understand them within the various contexts of Buddhist practice. We will emphasize an approach to the engagement of Buddhism into the varieties of social issues as it evolved in a dynamic relationship with its many communities and civilizations.

CHAPTER ONE: BASIC TEACHINGS OF THE BUDDHA

THE THREE UNIVERSAL TRUTHS

One day, the Buddha sat down in the shade of a tree and noticed how beautiful the countryside was. Flowers were blooming, and trees were putting on bright new leaves, but among all this beauty, he saw much unhappiness. A farmer beat his ox in the field. A bird pecked at an earthworm, and then an eagle swooped down on the bird. Deeply troubled, he asked, "Why does the farmer beat his ox? Why must one creature eat another to live?"

During his enlightenment, the Buddha found the answer to these questions. He discovered three great truths. He explained these truths so that everyone could understand them.

1. Nothing is lost in the universe

The first truth is that nothing is lost in the universe. Matter turns into energy; energy turns into matter. A dead leaf turns into soil. A seed sprouts and becomes a new plant. Old solar systems disintegrate and turn into cosmic rays. We are born of our parents; our children are born of us.

We are the same as plants, trees, other people, and rainfall. We consist of that around us; we are the same as everything. If we destroy something around us, we destroy ourselves. If we cheat another, we cheat ourselves. Understanding this truth, the Buddha and his disciples never killed any animal.

2. Everything Changes

The second universal truth of the Buddha is that everything is continuously changing. Life is like a river flowing on and on, ever-changing. Sometimes it flows slowly and sometimes swiftly. It is smooth and gentle in some places, but snags and rocks crop up out of nowhere later on. As soon as we think we are safe, something unexpected happens.

Once, dinosaurs, mammoths, and sabre-toothed tigers roamed this earth. They all died out, yet this was not the end of life. Other life forms like smaller mammals appeared, and eventually humans, too. Now we can even see the Earth from space and understand the changes that have taken place on this planet. Our ideas about life also change. People once believed that the world was flat, but now we know that it is round.

3. Law of Cause and Effect

The third universal truth explained by the Buddha is that there are continuous changes due to the law of cause and effect. This is the same law of cause and effect in every modern science textbook. In this way, science and Buddhism are alike.

The law of cause and effect is known as karma. Nothing ever happens to us unless we deserve it. We receive exactly what we earn, whether it is good or bad. We are the way we are now due to what we have done in the past. Our thoughts and actions determine the kind of life we can have. If we do good things, good things will happen to us in the future. If we do bad things, bad things will happen to us in the future. Every moment, we create new karma by saying, doing, and thinking. If we understand this, we do not need to fear karma. It becomes our friend. It teaches us to create a bright future.

The Buddha said,

"The kind of seed sown will produce that kind of fruit.

 Those who do good will reap good results.

 Those who do evil will reap evil results.

 If you carefully plant a good seed,

 You will joyfully gather good fruit." Dhammapada

THE FOUR NOBLE TRUTHS

Once there was a woman named Kisagotami, whose first-born son died. She was so stricken with grief that she roamed the streets carrying the dead body and asking for help to bring her son back to life. A kind and wise man took her to the Buddha.

The Buddha told her, "Fetch me a handful of mustard seeds, and I will bring your child back to life." Joyfully Kisagotami started off to get them. Then the Buddha added, "But the seeds must come from a family that has not known death."

Kisagotami went from door to door in the whole village asking for the mustard seeds, but everyone said, "Oh, there have been many deaths here," "I lost my father," I lost my sister." She could not find a single household that had not been visited by death. Finally, Kisagotami returned to the Buddha and said, "There is death in every family. Everyone dies. Now I understand your teaching."

The Buddha said, "No one can escape death and unhappiness. If people expect only happiness in life, they will be disappointed." Things are not always the way we want them to be, but we can understand them. When we get sick, we go to a doctor and ask:

What's wrong with me?

Why am I sick?

What will cure me?

What do I have to do to get well?

The Buddha is like a good doctor. First, a good doctor diagnoses the illness. Next, he finds out what has caused it. Then he decides what the cure is. Finally, he prescribes the medicine or gives the treatment to make the patient well again.

.

The Four Noble Truths

1. There is Suffering - Suffering is common to all.

2. Cause of Suffering - We are the cause of our suffering.

3. End of Suffering - Stop doing what causes suffering.

4. Path to end Suffering - Everyone can be enlightened.

1. Suffering: Everyone suffers from these things:

Birth- When we are born, we cry.

Sickness- When we are sick, we are miserable.

Old age- When old, we will have aches and pains and find it hard to get around.

Death- None of us wants to die. We feel deep sorrow when someone dies.

Other things we suffer from are:

Being with those we dislike,

Being apart from those we love,

Not getting what we want,

All kinds of problems and disappointments are unavoidable.

The Buddha did not deny happiness in life, but he pointed out that it is not last forever. Eventually, everyone meets with some suffering. He said:

"There is happiness in life, happiness in friendship, the happiness of a family, happiness in a healthy body and mind, but when one loses them, there is suffering." - Dhammapada

2. The cause of suffering

The Buddha explained that people live in a sea of suffering because of ignorance and greed. They are ignorant of the law of karma and are greedy for the wrong kind of pleasures. They do harmful things to their bodies and peace of mind, so they cannot be satisfied or enjoy life.

For example, once children have had a taste of candy, they want more. When they can't have it, they get upset. Even if children get all the candy they want, they soon get tired of it and want something else. Although they get a stomachache from overeating candy, they still want more. The things people want most cause them the most suffering. Of course, there are basic things that all people should have, like adequate food, shelter, and clothing. Everyone deserves a good home, loving parents, and good friends. They should enjoy life and cherish their possessions without becoming greedy.

3. The end of suffering

To end suffering, one must cut off greed and ignorance. This means changing one's views and living more naturally and peacefully. It is like blowing out a candle. The flame of suffering is put out for good. Buddhists call the state in which all suffering is ended Nirvana. Nirvana is an everlasting state of great joy and peace. The Buddha said, "The extinction of desire is Nirvana." This is the ultimate goal in Buddhism. Everyone can realize it with the help of the Buddha's teachings. It can be experienced in this very life.

4. The path to the end of suffering

The path to ending suffering is known as the Noble Eightfold Path. It is also known as the Middle Way.

THE NOBLE EIGHTFOLD PATH

When the Buddha gave his first sermon in the Deer Park, he began the 'Turning of the Dharma Wheel.' He chose the beautiful symbol of the wheel with its eight spokes to represent the Noble Eightfold Path. The Buddha's teaching goes round and round like a great wheel that never stops, leading to the wheel's central point, the only fixed issue, Nirvana. The eight spokes on the wheel represent the eight parts of the Noble Eightfold Path. Just as every spoke is needed for the wheel to keep turning, we need to follow each step of the path.

1. Right View.The right way to think about life is to see the world through the eyes of the Buddha--with wisdom and compassion.

2. Right Thought. We are what we think. Clear and kind thoughts build good, strong characters.

3. Right Speech. By speaking kind and helpful words, everyone respects and trusts us.

4. Right Conduct. No matter what we say, others know us from how we behave. Before we criticize others, we should first see what we do ourselves.

5. Right Livelihood. This means choosing a job that does not hurt others. The Buddha said, "Do not earn your living by harming others. Do not seek happiness by making others unhappy."

6. Right Effort. A worthwhile life means doing our best at all times and having goodwill toward others. This also means not wasting effort on things that harm ourselves and others.

7. Right Mindfulness. This means being aware of our thoughts, words, and deeds.

8. Right Concentration. Focus on one thought or object at a time.

We can be quiet and attain true peace of mind by doing this. Following the Noble Eightfold Path can be compared to cultivating a garden, but one cultivates one's wisdom in Buddhism. The mind is the ground, and thoughts are seeds. Deeds are ways one cares for the garden. Our faults are weeds. Pulling them out is like weeding a garden. The harvest is real and lasting happiness.

1.1 FOLLOWING THE BUDDHA'S TEACHINGS

The Buddha spoke the Four Noble Truths and many other teachings, but they all stress the same thing at heart. An ancient story explains this well.

Once a very old king went to see an old hermit who lived in a bird's nest in the top of a tree, "What is the most important Buddhist teaching?" The hermit answered, "Do no evil, do only good. Purify your heart." The king had expected to hear a very long explanation. He protested, "But even a five-year-old child can understand that!" "Yes," replied the wise sage, "but even an 80-year-old man cannot do it."

THE TRIPLE JEWEL

The Buddha knew it would be difficult for people to follow his teachings on their own, so he established the Three Refuges for them to rely on. If a person wants to become a Buddhist, take refuge in and rely on the Buddha, the Dharma, and the Sangha. These are known as the Triple Jewel. The Sangha are the monks and nuns. They live in monasteries and carry on the Buddha's teaching. The word Sangha means 'harmonious community.' The Buddha, the Dharma, and the Sangha possess precious qualities like jewels and lead one to enlightenment.

A refuge is a place to go for safety and protection, like a shelter in a storm. Taking refuge does not mean running away from life. It means living life in a fuller, truer way.

Taking refuge is also like a man travelling to a distant city for the first time. He will need a guide to show him which path to follow and some travelling companions to help him along the way.

The Buddha is the guide.

The Dharma is the path.

The Sangha are the teachers or companions along the way.

There is a special ceremony for taking refuge with the Triple Jewel. One recites the following verse in front of an ordained monk or nun with a sincere mind.

I go to the Buddha for refuge.

I go to the Dharma for refuge.

I go to the Sangha for refuge.

For a Buddhist, taking refuge is the first step on the path to enlightenment. Even if enlightenment is not achieved in this life, one has a better chance to become enlightened in future life. One who takes the precepts is called a layperson.

THE FIVE PRECEPTS

All religions have some basic rules that define good conduct and what kind of conduct should be avoided. In Buddhism, the most important rules are the Five Precepts. These have been passed down from the Buddha himself.

1. No killingRespect for life

2. No stealingRespect for others' property

3. No sexual misconductRespect for our pure nature

4. No lying Respect for honesty

5. No intoxicantsRespect for a clear mind

1. NO KILLING

The Buddha said, "Life is dear to all beings. They have the right to live the same as we do." We should respect all life and not kill anything. Killing ants and mosquitoes is also breaking this precept. We should have an attitude of loving-kindness towards all beings, wishing them happy and free from harm. Taking care of the earth, its rivers, and the air is included. One way that many Buddhists follow this precept is by being vegetarian.

2. NO STEALING

If we steal from another, we steal from ourselves. Instead, we should learn to give and take care of things that belong to our family, the school, or the public.

3. NO SEXUAL MISCONDUCT

Proper conduct shows respect for oneself and others. Our bodies are gifts from our parents, so we should protect them from harm. Young people should especially keep their natures pure and develop their virtue. It is up to them to make the world a better place to live. In happy families, the husband and wife both respect each other.

4. NO LYING

Being honest brings peace into the world. When there is a misunderstanding, the best thing is to talk it over. This precept includes no gossip, no back-biting, no harsh words, and idle speech.

5. NO INTOXICANTS

The fifth precept is based on keeping a clear mind and a healthy body. One day, when the Buddha was speaking the Dharma for the assembly, a young drunkard staggered into the room. He tripped over some monks sitting on the floor and started cursing loudly. His breath reeked of alcohol and filled the air with a sickening stench. Mumbling to himself, he reeled out the door.

Everyone was astonished at his rude behaviour, but the Buddha remained calm. "Great assembly!" he spoke, "Take a look at this man! He will certainly lose his wealth and good name. His body will grow weak and sickly. Day and night, he will quarrel with his family and friends until they abandon him. The worst thing is that he will lose his wisdom and become stupid."

Little by little, one can learn to follow these precepts. If one sometimes forgets them, one can start all over again. Following the precepts is a lifetime job. If one kills or hurts someone's feelings by mistake, that breaks the precepts, but it was not done on purpose.

THE WHEEL OF LIFE

Buddhists do not believe that death is the end of life. When one dies, one's consciousness leaves and enters one of the six paths of rebirth.

Heavenly Beings

Humans Beings

Asuras are beings who have many good things in life but still like to fight. They appear in the heavens or on earth as people or animals.

Hungry ghosts are beings who suffer from constant hunger.

Hell-beings

These are the six states on the wheel of life. At the top are the heavens, where everyone is happy. Below are the hells where the suffering is unbearable. Beings can rise or fall from one path to another. If one did good deeds, one would be born into the paths of gods, humans, or asuras. If one did evil deeds, one would be born into the paths of animals, hungry ghosts, or hell-beings. According to the things one has done from one life to the next, one can suddenly change from a human to an animal or a ghost to a hell-being.

How to Escape the Turning Wheel

The wheel of life and death is kept turning by the three poisons of greed, hatred, and stupidity. We can escape the wheel and become enlightened by cutting off the three poisons. There are four stages of enlightenment.

Buddhas- perfect in enlightenment.

Bodhisattvas- enlighten themselves as well as others.

Pratyekabuddhas- hermits who retreat from the world to enlighten themselves.

Arhats- enlighten themselves.

1.2 THE BUDDHIST COMMUNITY

In Asia, it is considered the highest honour if a member of one's family leaves the home life. Westerners, however, may be shocked at the idea of anyone leaving their family to become a monk or nun. They may think this is selfish and turning one's back on the world. Monks and nuns are not selfish at all. They dedicate themselves to helping others. They don't wish to own many things or have money or power. They give these things up to gain something far more valuable--spiritual freedom. Living a pure, simple life with others on the same path can lessen their greed, hatred, and ignorance.

Although monks and nuns live in a monastery, they do not give up their families entirely. They are allowed to visit and take care of them when they are ill.

LIFE IN A MONASTERY

A day in a temple begins early for monks and nuns. They attend morning ceremonies and chant praises to the Buddha long before daybreak. The ceremonies lift one's spirit and bring about harmony. Although the Sangha leads simple lives, they have many responsibilities to fulfil. Everyone works diligently and is content with their duties.

During the day, some monks and nuns go about teaching in schools or speaking the Buddha's teachings. Others may revise and translate Buddhist Sutras and books, make Buddha images, take care of the temple and gardens, prepare for ceremonies, give advice to laypeople, and care for the elders and those who are sick. The day ends with a final evening ceremony.

In the daily life of work and religious practice, the monks and nuns conduct themselves properly and are highly respected. By leading a pure, simple life, they gain extraordinary insight into the nature of things. Although their life is hard and rigorous, the results are worth it. It also keeps them healthy and energetic. The laity, who live in the temple or visit, follow the same schedule as the Sangha and work along with them.

1.3 THE SHAVEN HEAD, ROBE, AND OFFERING BOWL

Ideally, monks and nuns own only a few things, such as robes and an offering bowl. While most people spend lots of time and money on their hair, Buddhist monks and nuns shave their heads. They are no longer concerned with outward beauty but with developing their spiritual lives. The shaven head reminds us that the monks and nuns have renounced the home life and are a part of the Sangha.

Offering food to monks and nuns is a part of Buddhism. In Asia, it is not unusual to see monks walking towards the villages early in the morning carrying their offering bowls. They do not beg for food but accept whatever is offered. This practice helps the monks and nuns be humble and allows laypeople to give. In some countries, laypeople go to the monastery to make offerings.

The robes of monks and nuns are simple and made from cotton or linen. Their colour varies according to different countries. For instance, yellow robes are mostly worn in Thailand, while black robes are worn in Japan. In China and Korea, grey and brown robes are worn for work, while more elaborate robes are used for ceremonies. Dark red robes are worn in Tibet.

Robes and offering bowls are very important to monks and nuns. The Buddha said, "Just as a bird takes its wings with it wherever it flies, so the monk takes his robes and bowl with him wherever he goes."

THE IMPORTANCE OF THE LAITY IN BUDDHISM

The laity is very important in Buddhism, for they are the supporting members of the Buddhist community. They built the temples and monasteries and gave the monks and nuns food, robes, bedding, and medicine. This enables the Sangha to carry on the Buddha's work. In this way, the Sangha and laity benefit each other and together keep the Dharma alive.

In Buddhism, it is also important to support the poor and needy. However, giving to support religious people is considered a very meritorious deed. The Buddha encouraged giving to Buddhists and any spiritual person who is sincere.

The Buddha taught his disciples to be tolerant of other religions. For example, when one lights a candle from the flame of another candle, the flame of the first candle does not lose its light. Instead, the two lights glow more brightly together. It is the same with the great religions of the world.

Whether one is a member of the Sangha or a layperson, the idea is to practice Buddhism for the sake of all.

HOW BUDDHISM HELPS

Buddhism is also a way of life. It teaches the employment of basic ethics in one’s daily life, such as controlling oneself, serving others without discrimination, and endeavouring towards perfection. If practised with devotion and firmness, it can lead one to liberate wisdom – the so-called enlightenment. For that reason, Buddhism is likened to a philosophy rather than a religion.

The teaching of Buddhism can help us improve our livelihood, make better use of our resources. Especially, many people who live in developed first-world countries have problems in their lives due to a lack of proper philosophical understanding of their lives. In Canada, for example, there are considerable faults in Canadian society due to the same reason. Many Canadian relationships are not as strong as they are supposed to be. Some people who do not know the Buddha's teachings criticise Buddhism as impractical and an escape from reality because it deals with transcendent (beyond this world) matters. The actual truth is that Buddhism is constantly dealing with our current world, not the past, not the future, but just the truth and reality. For example, once Buddha said, “I was born as a human, I lived as a human, but now I am stronger than them, stronger than any Gods in other worlds. I became superior because I ceased the suffering of life. You also can do the same thing if you understand the concepts of life.”

These comments are based on how Buddhism deals with human life and its liberation; it is necessary to understand human nature through experience thoroughly. Practising Buddhism is very much mundane (within this world), dealing with worldly matters, and such practice brings many advantages.

Buddhism helps people to obtain the correct perspective on life.

Buddhism encourages man to lead a life through the endeavour.

Buddhism can purify society.

Buddhism can help develop self-respect, self-confidence, and an independent character.

BUDDHISM AND CHRISTIANITY

The teachings of both Christianity and Buddhism encourage compassion, wisdom, and respect for others. Christians and Buddhists alike strive for peace and seek truth and meaning in everyday life. Both Buddhists and Christians support charitable actions and condemn theft and murder. However, there are differences in the way to reach salvation or enlightenment, and some of these are:

Christianity Teaches

Buddhism Teaches

There is a personal God

There is no personal god

Jesus Christ is the divine Son of God

The Buddha never claimed divinity

Salvation may be attained through Christ

You must seek your salvation with diligence

Through Christ, sins may be forgiven

Our past and current actions determine the future

Pray to God for salvation

Meditate to reach enlightenment

www.buddha101.com

Questions for Reflection and discussion

 What are the basic points of Buddhism?

Is Buddhism a religion or a philosophy?

Why do Buddhist’s practice ancestor worship?

Why is Buddhism Becoming Popular?

How is Buddhism taught in school?

What elements of respect to use when receiving teachings from Cambodian Buddhism?

Do you have to be a Buddhist to participate in social development? Why?

We hear the word "Buddha, Dharma, and Sangha" used a lot these days in Buddhist circles. What does it mean?

How do we educate our children?

What do you mean by social engagement in Buddhism?

Is there any connection between Buddhism and science? Why? How are they connected?

CHAPTER TWO: ROLE OF BUDDHISM IN CAMBODIAN LIFE

Buddhist monks were traditionally called upon to perform many functions in Cambodian life. They participated in all traditional village festivals, ceremonies, marriages, and funerals. They also might have participated in ceremonies to name infants and other minor ceremonies or rites of passage. Monks did not lead the ceremonies because that role was given to the achar or master of ceremonies; the monk's major function was to say prayers of blessing. They were often healers, and, in traditional Khmer culture, they were the practitioners whose role was closest to that of modern psychiatrists. They might also have been skilled in astrology. The monk traditionally occupied a unique position in transmitting Khmer culture and values. By his way of life, he provided a living model of the most meritorious behaviour a Buddhist could follow. He also provided the laity with many opportunities for gaining merit. For centuries monks were the only literate people residing in rural communities; they acted as teachers to temple servants, novices, and newly ordained monks. Until the 1970s, most literate Cambodian males gained literacy solely through the instruction of the sangha.¹

After independence from France, young Cambodian intellectuals changed their attitude toward the clergy. In describing a general shift away from Buddhism in the late 1950s and the early 1960s, Vickery cites anthropologist May Mayko Ebihara's early work and observations. He suggests that the Khmer Rouge instilled antireligious feelings in younger males because the latter lost interest in becoming monks even during their teenage years, the traditional temporary period of service. The monks themselves had abandoned some of their traditional restrictions and had become involved in politics. At intervals during the colonial period, some monks had demonstrated or had rebelled against French rule, and in the 1970s, monks joined pro-government demonstrations against the communists. Anticlerical feelings reached their highest point among the Khmer Rouge, who attempted to indoctrinate monks and force them to pass anticlerical ideas on to the laity. Under the Khmer Rouge regime, monks were expelled forcibly from the wats and were compelled to do manual labour. Article 20 of the 1976 Constitution of Democratic Kampuchea permitted freedom of religion but banned all reactionary religions that were "detrimental to the country." The minister of culture stated that Buddhism was incompatible with the revolution and was an instrument of exploitation. Under this regime, to quote the Finnish Inquiry Commission, "The practice of religion was forbidden, and the pagodas were systematically destroyed." Observers estimated that 50,000 monks died during the Khmer Rouge regime.

Most of the major Cambodian annual festivals are connected with Buddhist observances. The chol chnam (New Year Festival) takes place in mid-April; it was one of the few festivals allowed under the Khmer Rouge regime. The phchun ben, celebrated in September or October, is a Memorial Day for deceased ancestors and close friends. Meak bochea, in January or February, commemorates the last sermon of the Buddha. Vissakh bochea, in April or in May, is the triple anniversary of the birth, death, and enlightenment of the Buddha. The chol vossa takes place in June or in July; it marks the beginning of a penitential season during which the monks must remain within the temple compounds. The kathen marks the end of this season; celebrated in September, it features offerings, especially of robes, to the monks. The kathen was still celebrated in the PRK in the late 1980s.

Cambodian Buddhism exists side-by-side with, and to some extent intermingles with, pre-Buddhist animism and Brahman practices. Most Cambodians believe in a rich supernatural world, whether they profess to be Buddhists or Muslims. When ill, or at other times of crisis, or to seek supernatural help, Cambodians may enlist the aid of a practitioner who is believed to propitiate or obtain help from various spirits. Local spirits are believed to inhabit a variety of objects, and shrines to them may be found in houses, in Buddhist temples, along roads, and forests.

Aid in dealing with the spirit world may be obtained from a Kru (shaman or spirit practitioner), an achar (ritualist), thmup (witch, sorcerer, or sorceress), or a rup arak (medium, usually male).

The Kru is a kind of sorcerer who prepares charms and amulets to protect the wearer from harm. He can cure illnesses, find lost objects, and prepare magic potions. Traditionally, Cambodians have held strong beliefs about protective charms. Amulets are worn routinely by soldiers to ward off bullets, for example. The Kru is believed to have the power to prepare an amulet and establish a supernatural link between it and the owner. A Kru may acquire considerable local prestige and power. Many Kru is former Buddhist monks.

Another kind of magical practitioner is the achar, a ritual specialist. He may function as a kind of master of ceremonies and as a specialist in conducting spiritual worship rituals connected with life-cycle ceremonies. Rup arak is a medium that can be possessed by supernatural beings and communicate with the spirit world. The thump is a sorcerer who causes illnesses.

Fortunetellers and astrologers—haor teay—are important in Cambodian life. They are consulted about important decisions such as marriages, building a new house, or going on a long journey. They are believed to foretell future events and determine lucky or unlucky days for various activities.

Villagers are sensitive to the power and the needs of the spirit world. According to observations by an American missionary in the early 1970s, villagers consulted the local guardian spirit to find out what the coming year would bring. A new province chief held a ceremony to ask for the protection of the spirits over the province. Soldiers obtained magic cloths and amulets from mediums and shamans to protect them from the enemy's bullets. Before embarking on a mission against enemy forces, a province chief might burn incense and call on a spirit for aid in defeating the enemy. Examples of Brahman influences were various rituals concerned with the ruler and the Baku (a Brahman priestly group attached to the royal court).

2.1 SAMDECH SANGHA RAJA JHOTAÑANO CHUON NATH

A good example is Prah Samdach Songha Chhuan Nath, the top hierarchical monk and advisor to King Sihanouk during the 1950s and 1960s.

Samdech Sangha Raja Jhotañano Chuon Nath (March 11, 1883 – September 25, 1969) is Cambodia’s late Supreme Patriarch Kana Mahanikaya. Amongst his achievements is his effort to conserve the Khmer language in the Khmer dictionary. His protection of Khmer identity and history in the national anthem, Nokor Reach, and Savada Khmer contribute to the country.

Conserving the Khmer Language

Samdech Nath was the head of a reformist movement in the Khmer Buddhist Sangha, which developed a rationalist-scholastic model of Buddhism, rooted in linguistic studies of the Pali Canon. This new movement, known as Dhammayuttika Nikaya, influenced young Khmer monks in the early 20th century. The new movement also cultivated Khmer-language identity and culture, giving rise to the notion of Cambodian nationalism.

Samdech Nath pushed for a series of innovations in the Khmer Sangha beginning in the early twentieth century: the use of print for sacred texts (rather than traditional methods of hand-inscribing palm-leaf manuscripts); a higher degree of expertise in Pali and Sanskrit studies among monks; a vision of orthodoxy based on the teaching of Vinaya texts for both monks and lay-people; and modernization of teaching methods for Buddhist studies. He also oversaw the translation of the entire Buddhist Pali canon into the Khmer language and the creation of the Khmer language dictionary.

The French government set up its protectorate over Cambodia and intended to replace the Khmer language with its own through the so-called "pseudo-French intellectuals." This intention rallied many Cambodian scholars to conserve the Khmer language; one such scholar was Samdech Nath. A son of farmers who later became a monk, Samdech Nath dedicated his life to upholding Buddhism and conserving the Khmer language in the country highly influenced by French colonialism. He had extensive knowledge of the Khmer language. He was probably the most famous and most knowledgeable monk Cambodia had ever had. A master in Buddha’s teaching, he was well-known in Buddhism circles and adept at languages. Throughout his life, he encouraged the use of "Khmerization" in both public education and religion. What Samdech Nath meant by "Khmerization" was he wanted to derive new Khmer words from its ancestral roots, the Pali and Sanskrit languages. For example, when the train arrived first in Cambodia, there was no Khmer word. Samdech Nath thus derived the word for train from Sanskrit and Pali word of Ayomoyo, which means something made of metal. The word Yana which means a vehicle, came from the Khmer word for the train, today as Ayaksmeyana, pronounced Ayak-smey-yean.

However, Samdech Nath’s Khmerization was not overall accepted by all Khmers. Scholars such as Keng Vannsak, pro-French, did not find the kind of Khmer words derived from Pali and Sanskrit convenient. They revolutionized another kind of derivation, which they wanted to adopt normalized French words into Khmer vocabulary. The only major change was to use the Khmer alphabet to write the word rather than using the Roman alphabet used by the French. But despite opposition, Samdech Nath’s Khmerization succeeded. He was a member of the original committee granted royal order to compile a Khmer dictionary in 1915 and was credited as the founder of the dictionary. He pushed for and finally succeeded in printing the first edition of the current Khmer dictionary in 1967.

Samdech Nath’s other contributions to Cambodia include the current national anthem, Nokoreach. Nokoreach was written to correspond to the nation's motto, "Nation, Religion, King," and demonstrate the grandeur and the mighty past of the Khmer nation.¹

2.2 SAMDECH PREAH MAHA GHOSANANDA

Samdech Preah Maha Ghosananda (1929 - March 12, 2007)¹ was a highly revered Cambodian Buddhist monk in the Theravada tradition who served as the Patriarch (Sangharaja) of Cambodian Buddhism during the Khmer Rouge period and post-communist transition period of Cambodian history. His Pali monastic name, 'Maha Ghosananda,' means "great joyful proclaimer."

Early life

He was born in Takéo Province, Cambodia in 1929, to a farming family in the Mekong Delta plains. He showed great interest in religion from an early age and served as a temple boy at age eight. He greatly impressed the monks with whom he served, and at age fourteen, received novice ordination. He studied Pali scriptures in the local temple high school, then completed his higher education at the monastic universities in Phnom Penh and Battambang before going to India to pursue a doctorate in Pali at Nalanda University in Bihar.

Education

Maha Ghosananda trained under some of the most highly influential Buddhist masters, including the Japanese monk Nichidatsu Fujii and the Cambodian Patriarch Samdech Preah Sangharaja Chuon Nath.

In 1965, Maha Ghosananda left India to study meditation under Ajahn Dhammadaro, Wat Chai Na forest temple near Nakorn Sri Dhammaraj in Southern Thailand, a famous meditation master of the Thai Forest Tradition. Four years later, while he was still studying at Dhammadaro's forest monastery, the United States began bombing Cambodia as part of their attempt to shut down the Ho Chi Minh Trail and end the Vietnam War. Cambodia became engulfed in the civil war and social disintegration.

Restoration

Maha Ghosananda served as a key figure in post-Communist Cambodia, helping restore the nation-state and revive Cambodian Buddhism. In 1980, he served as a representative of the Cambodian nation-in-exile to the United Nations

When the Pol Pot regime collapsed in 1979, Maha Ghosananda was one of only 3,000 Cambodian Buddhist monks alive, out of more than 60,000 at the start of the reign of terror in 1976.

In 1988, Maha Ghosananda was elected as sanghreach (sangharaja) by a small gathering of exiled monks in Paris[1]. He agreed to accept the position provisionally until a complete, independent monastic hierarchy could be established in Cambodia.[2] At the time, Venerable Tep Vong was the titular head of a unified Cambodian sangha, having been appointed to the position in 1981 by the Vietnamese-backed People's Republic of Kampuchea.[3]

Dhamma Yatra

In 1992, during the first year of the United Nations-sponsored peace agreement, Maha Ghosananda led the first nationwide Dhammayietra, a peace march or pilgrimage, across Cambodia to begin restoring the hope and spirit of the Cambodian people.

The 16-day, 125-mile peace walk passed through territory still controlled by the Khmer Rouge. Afterwards, he led numerous other peace walks across Cambodia, accompanied by 200 people each year.

He has been called "the Gandhi of Cambodia." Maha Ghosananda was nominated for the Nobel Peace Prize by the U.S. Senate Foreign Relations Committee, Claiborne Pell. He was again nominated in 1995, 1996, and 1997 to bring peace to Cambodia. He also acted as an advisor to the Buddhist Peace Fellowship and resided part-time in the Palalai Temple in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, United States. He died in Northampton, Massachusetts, on March 12, 2007.

Questions for Reflection and discussion

What are the special practices of past Buddhism in Cambodia? What was involved?

What benefits did Buddhist practitioners derive from practising monastic roles?

How do you think Buddhist teachings and practices could fit in with implementing those into the daily life of Cambodian people?

What is the main message of Maha Ghosanada?

2.3 SOME DILEMMAS OF BUDDHISM

The Present: Cambodian Buddhism is in Decline

After the Khmer Rouge regime was finished, Buddhism was reborn and started developing daily. But the development came only from outside forms of Buddhism. The new influences focused only on the constructions. They didn't know what the core of Buddhism was. The roles played by the Khmer Buddhist monks in Khmer society were significantly decreased. The Grand Patriarch, the ranking Buddhist monk, who has traditionally been an advisor to the king, lost most if not all of his influence and power. The monks themselves lost their focus and became selfish. They don't dare to share what they have to help Buddhism.

Why is Khmer Buddhism in decline?

Some practitioners, Buddhist monks, novices, and laity, are not strict in Vinaya, monastic discipline. They are only attracted to modern materialism, such as motorcycles, cars, phones, televisions, and electronic entertainment. They concentrate on earning money in any way possible, even engaging in illegal or immoral behaviour. They are crazy about money at the moment. They don't spend money in the right way.

The monks suffer from a limited belief system because they don't study and find out the deep core of Buddhism. So, they are reluctant to commit to the discipline of the religion. Monks don't have enough knowledge to explain Buddha's teaching to the laity.

The Monk Educational System in Cambodia is not standard, and no university accepts the qualifications. Even if you complete your monk education, you must study again from the beginning. I, Prah Sokha, was also forced to do this. I completed secondary school, became a monk and studied the same grade again. It takes us a long time to complete our studies because we have to do everything twice.¹

Outside Threats to Khmer Buddhism

Other religions, Islam, and Christianity are penetrating Cambodia every day. They try to use the money to buy the people to practice their religions by offering gifts or cash to the poor and then hiding them behind the scenes. Buddhist monks have not shown any interest in this situation.

If all Cambodian monks are still sleeping in ignorance, don't look at the neighbouring countries. If they don't upgrade their thoughts or ideas, Buddhism will vanish or disappear in the nearest future. And there will be a religious war in Cambodia sooner.

Role of the Monastery in the community

The temple or monastery serves as a place of education, a moral centre, a place for festivals (annual and life cycle rituals), a community gathering place, a place for elders to meet, a place for travellers to rest. The layout of the temple includes the Vihear (worship hall, usually with paintings of the life of the Buddha), Kot (residences of the monks), sala (meeting halls and dining halls), stupa reliquaries for the ashes of the dead.

EXAMPLE OF CAMBODIAN BUDDHISM CASES

Research conducted in 2003² in six rural temples near Phnom Penh focused on daily practice. The major finding is that daily practice today is very similar to pre-war patterns.

Rural people try to follow the precepts and make merit through donations to monks on alms rounds, temples, and festivals.

The temple is still at the centre of village life; monks still play a key role within the community.

Problems Today:

A lack of older educated monks. Those ordained before the war or in the 1980s are elderly and dying. Abbots today are often young with limited experience. Many men who ordain as monks today do so as a means of social mobility, as a way to gain an education.

There is still a lack of texts. While some basic books have been reprinted, especially for monk education, the vast majority of books in Khmer were lost in the destruction of the Khmer Rouge years.

Many laypeople allege that the monks are not as strict in their practice as pre-war monks. At the same time, they also discuss a moral crisis among the Khmer lay population. They cite new outside influences from abroad, including television, drugs, and gangs, as harmful effects on young people.

Is a crisis looming as this generation of elders dies? Today's main group of people practising Buddhism are the elders (as was true in the past). But will those who are now middle-aged take on their role as Buddhist leaders as they age? They were children under the Khmer Rouge and had limited contact with Buddhism in the 1980s. They did not listen to sermons at their parents' knees or ordain in their teens as their parents did. Will Buddhism skip a generation?

Since 1993 there has been a dramatic rebuilding of Buddhism in Cambodia characterized by:

a dramatic increase in the number of men ordaining as monks

the reconstruction of large numbers of temples

the republication of Buddhist texts

the reopening of the Buddhist Institute

all of the above. 

The dharma building peace ‘step-by-step’

Picture: novice monk, source: Roland Eng

Even though the Cambodian Sangha (the formal Khmer monastic institution) remains poorly equipped to address the social dimensions of peacemaking, a bold way forward is outlined in the dharma (the Buddhist teaching).

The Buddha himself advocated a 'step-by-step' peacebuilding approach that envisaged an overall social change process as the ultimate goal. The starting point is the quest for inner peace. The Buddha taught it could only be achieved through instruction, meditation, and strict observance of the five precepts - to refrain from killing, stealing, sexual misconduct, lying, and intoxication. One attains greater spirituality as one is gradually liberated from greed, hatred, and delusion.

The achievement of inner peace does not result in inactivity but leads to greater creativity in the face of society's problems. Buddhism links personal change to social change by teaching that a peaceful heart makes for a peaceful person, a peaceful family, community, nation, and world. Therefore, it is not enough to only wish for peace - Cambodians must actively contribute to achieving it, sustained in their relations with one another by the pillars of loving-kindness, compassion, and wisdom. Even if each Cambodian only follows these ideas partially, the country will be better for it.

The Dhammayietra Peace Marches

Picture: Dhammayietra peace march enterint Pailin, March 1997.

Source: David van der Veen

The Dhammayietra ('pilgrimage of truth') peace marches are the most visible expression of Khmer Buddhism's condemnation of violence. As it came to be known, the peace army made its first historic journey in 1992. The Venerable Maha Ghosananda led a large party of refugees and monks from Cambodia and other countries on a four-week march from the Thai border into Cambodia. By the time the army of peace reached Phnom Penh, it was 1,000-strong and had attracted the world's attention to Cambodia's problems.

This massive peace demonstration has become an annual event in Cambodia and traverses some of the country's most insecure regions. Two marchers were injured in 1993 and two killed in 1994 when the peace march made its way through battle zones. Rather than flagging, however, the peace march was reinvigorated by these trials and has continued to bring a message of hope and encouragement to all Cambodians. More recent marches have also raised awareness on landmines and deforestation: in 1996, 2,000 trees were planted along the march route.

As a rule, marchers must be dressed in civilian clothes and may not carry firearms or any form of party-political slogans. They must also attend a pre-march training, where they are informed of guidelines for the march and are given basic training in Buddhist concepts, meditation, and ways of handling fear. Military personnel from all sides in Cambodia's conflict are barred from marching, even to protect the marchers. "Non-violence," the organizers insist, "cannot be protected with the instruments of violence."

This 'peace army' has come to enjoy the support of many Cambodians, including some government officials, and has gained momentum, which will prove increasingly difficult to stop. Based on universal values of compassion, non-violence, and solidarity, the peace army also serves as a model of social mobilization for oppressed people in other countries.

Buddhist Monks and HIV/AIDS project in Cambodia

Buddhist Monks are also highly respected in Cambodian culture and can play a very important role in responding to the HIV/AIDS epidemic. Description: The Salvation Centre Cambodia (SCC) was established ten years ago and implemented HIV/AIDS prevention, care, support, and advocacy initiatives through the Buddhist monk infrastructure in Phnom Penh and Battambang. Lessons learned: The Buddhist infrastructure of Pagodas, Monks, and Nuns in many Asian countries provides an excellent opportunity for implementing large-scale HIV/AIDS prevention, care, support, and advocacy initiatives. The Monks and Nuns are not only effective educators and carers, but they are also instrumental in the successful response to issues of stigma and discrimination at the community level. Key to the success of this approach is effective collaboration with and education of key stakeholders within the Buddhist Network and the relevant Government ministries, as these people are often the best advocates for the promotion and scale-up of activities. The Buddhist Monks are also very effective peer educators, and by adopting a 'train the trainer' approach, it is possible to have a broad reach with minimal resources. Recommendations: HIV/AIDS prevention, care, support, and community advocacy projects that involve Buddhist Monks and Nuns across Buddhist countries in Asia, such as the SCC Monks and HIV/AIDS Project, should be implemented and scaled up across the region.

Questions for Reflection and discussion

Does Khmer Buddhism seem to be in decline? How, do you think? Why?

How is Buddhism practised today?

What is its significance today for practitioners?

How do you notice the Buddhist monk's knowledge, attitude, and practice in Cambodia?

2.4 SOCIALLY ENGAGED BUDDHISM:

A Buddhist Practice for the West

by Philip Russell Brown

This article presents the Buddhist peace fellowship (pdf), the "tiep hien" Buddhist order (the order of interbeing), and the work of the Sakyamuni Buddhist centre as examples of non-sectarian, socially engaged and ecologically responsible Buddhist practice. The author believes that these kinds of organizations are likely to be of interest to those western Buddhists for whom the spiritual practice is inseparable from social action on humanitarian and environmental issues.

Socially Engaged Buddhism defined and its Role in the West

The term "Socially Engaged Buddhism" refers to active involvement by Buddhists in society and its problems. Participants in this nascent movement seek to actualize Buddhism's traditional ideals of wisdom and compassion in today's world.

Because Buddhism has been seen as passive, otherworldly, or escapist, an "engaged Buddhism" may initially appear to be a self-contradiction. Isn't one of the distinguishing features of Buddhism its focus on the solitary quest for enlightenment?" (Kraft,1985) The view taken by many engaged Buddhists is "that no enlightenment can be complete as long as others remain trapped in delusion" and that "genuine wisdom is manifested in compassionate action." (Kraft,1985)

Furthermore, the engaged Buddhists who contributed to the recent work "The Path of Compassion: Writings on Socially Engaged Buddhism” (ed. Eppsteiner,1985) found that in re-examining Buddhism's 2500-year-old heritage, “the principles and even some of the techniques of an engaged Buddhism have been latent in the tradition since the time of its founder. Qualities that were inhibited in pre-modern Asian settings, they argue, can be actualized through Buddhism's exposure to the West, where ethical sensitivity, social activism, and egalitarianism are emphasized" (Kraft,1985).

According to an American Zen teacher: "A major task for Buddhism in the West, it seems to me, is to ally itself with religious and other concerned organizations to forestall the potential catastrophes facing the human race: nuclear holocaust, irreversible pollution of the world's environment, and the continuing large-scale destruction of non-renewable resources. We also need to lend our physical and moral support to those who are fighting hunger, poverty, and oppression in the world". (Kapleau,1983, p.26.)

Some Buddhist commentators can get the impression that taking immediate social action is futile because the only massive and widespread change in the level of human consciousness will significantly reduce suffering in the world. Take, for example, Ayya Khema's words on world peace:

"Every thinking person bemoans the fact that there is no peace between nations. Everybody would like to see peace on this globe. There isn't any. In this century, there has been a war somewhere practically all the time. Every country has an enormous defence system where a lot of energy, money, and manpower is used. This defence system is turned into an attack system the minute anyone even makes the slightest unfriendly remark or seems to be moving towards an invasion of air space or territorial waters. This is rationalized and justified with, 'We have to defend the border of our country to protect the inhabitants.’

Disarmament is a hope and a prayer, but not a reality. And why? Because disarmament has to start in everyone's heart or wholesale disarmament will never happen. The defence and attack, which happens on a large scale, constantly happen with us. We're constantly defending our self-image. If somebody should look at us sideways, not appreciate or love us enough, or even blame us, that defence turns into an attack. The rationale is that we have to defend this person, 'this country' which is 'me,' to protect the inhabitant, 'self.' Because nearly every person in the world does that, all nations act accordingly. There is no hope that this will ever change unless everyone changes. Therefore, it is up to us to work for peace inside ourselves. That can happen if each ego is diminished somewhat and ego only diminishes when we see with ruthless honesty what's going on inside us." (Khema,1987, pp46-47)

In stark contrast to this, Fred Eppsteiner of the Buddhist Peace Fellowship made the following comments about the Fourth Precept of the socially engaged "Tiep Hien" Buddhist Order:

"The fourth precept goes to the heart of Buddhist compassion and directs a challenge to all practitioners. Is it enough to practice formal Dharma so that someday we'll be able to help all living beings? Or, rather, can the suffering of these beings diminish through our compassionate involvement in the present? This precept seems to imply that contemplative reflections on the suffering of living beings are not enough and that the lotus can grow only when planted deep in the mud."

Eppsteiner goes on to recall "talking to a Vietnamese monk about Kuan-Yin, the Bodhisattva of Compassion. He (the monk) remarked that people mistakenly think that the only way to worship her is by putting offerings in front of her image and praying. Holding up his own two hands and looking directly in my eyes, he said, ' These are the best offering one can give Kuan-Yin.'" (Fred Eppsteiner in Thich Nhat Hanh, 1987b, p.6) (Italics mine)

In their book "Seeking the Heart of Wisdom," Joseph Goldstein and Jack Kornfield suggest that inner practice and social service are important elements of the spiritual path. "Vipassana in the West," they say, "has started by placing a great emphasis on inner meditation and individual transformation. Buddhist teachings have another whole dimension to them, a way of connecting our hearts to the world of action.

Their first universal guidelines teach about the moral precepts and the cultivation of generosity. These are the foundation for any spiritual life. Beyond this, Buddhist practice and the whole ancient Asian tradition is built upon the spirit of service. For some, service may seem to be simply an adjunct or addition to their inner meditation. But service is more than that; it expresses the maturity of wisdom in spiritual life. Understanding of this spirit of service and interconnectedness grows as our wisdom deepens." (Golstein & Kornfield,1987, p165). It is this spirit of service which the following Buddhis Organisations exemplify.

2.5 “ENGAGEMENT INSPIRES VISION, AND VISION INSPIRES ENGAGEMENT.”

Questions for Reflection and Discussion

What constitutes engagement?

What is the relation between personal transformation and social change?

Are the activities of engaged Buddhists distinctively Buddhist?

What are the specific Buddhist programs that are most in need?

CHAPTER THREE: CONFLICT ANALYSIS

The analysis tools in this section are for helping in understanding conflict from other theoretical perspectives. This idea of integration of different perspectives will help Buddhists cooperate in trying to understand and intervene in conflict situations.

3.1 COMPATIBILITY SQUARE

There are three characteristics of conflict:

The latent conflict: has hidden roots of which no parties know, but it is brewing up, leading to an explosion of conflict and even violence. So this is the dangerous stage, and it is suitable for people to identify it to deal with the root causes so that it does not blow up. It could be that the structure and systems cause this conflict within your organization or the management style being used by a particular departmental head.

Surface conflict: has no deep root, but if it is ignored, it might be rooted and become a severe problem. This kind of conflict is usually involved in relationships and misunderstandings.

Open conflict: is manifested and heard by everybody. This conflict has many roots and branches. It could turn violent if it is not appropriately managed.

Note: The 4th square depicts a situation where people have compatible goals and behaviours. The diagram says there is ‘no conflict,’ but considering the previous lesson, hopefully, there is positive conflict but no negative conflict that could potentially turn into violence.

Responding to Conflict 2000

Explanation

Compatible:being “in harmony” with each other

Incompatible“clashing” and/or “in opposition to” each other

Behaviour:how people act towards each other, being the basis to

any relationship

Goals: what do you or the institution want to achieve?

Questions for Reflection and Discussion

Why is it essential to discuss the characteristics of conflict?

What characteristics can you see, and which box would it fit into in your view?

How can you draw out any fascinating points?

JOHARI WINDOW￼

The “window” below is a way to show graphically the idea that each of us is more than one person:

I am the “me” that I know,

the “me” that you know,

the “me” that both of us know,

and also, a “me” which is unknown to everyone.

To use it, imagine that who you are can be seen through a window or in a mirror:

3.2 JOHARI WINDOW

How does it work?

People can enlarge their Open Self if they wish to. This is done by revealing more about oneself to others and asking them to tell us what they see in us. This enlarges the area where we can know and use our strengths and overcome our limitations. There will always be private parts of ourselves and aspects that are unknown.

It is not easy to make the unknown aspects available to us since neither we nor others see them. These aspects often become visible unexpectedly, sometimes in a crisis or under pressure. Thus, it is in our interest to try to find out as much as possible when we can, so as not to be surprised and perhaps disappointed with the person we become at difficult moments.

3.3 USING JOHARI WINDOW

Questions for Reflection and Discussion

How do you think the Johari Window is useful for you?

How is it important to give and receive feedback?

How have you changed your feelings when receiving others’ feedback?

When will you give positive feedback?

3.4 ABC TRIANGLE

This tool of analysis is used early in the process of conflict to gain a greater insight into what each party understands to be the problem or the source of conflict. Identifying this helps to reveal the goals and motivations of the different parties. This, in turn, suggests what factors might be addressed by intervention to reveal how a change in one aspect might affect another.

This analysis is based on the premise that conflicts have three major components:

the context or the situation

the behaviour of those involved, and

their attitudes.

These are represented graphically as the corners of a triangle:

This is an analysis of a conflict by looking at a particular situation's attitudes, behaviour, and context. These three factors influence each other - hence the arrows leading from one to another. The behaviour of my group influences the attitude of your group; for example, if my group stages many protests demanding jobs, and your group reacts by becoming resentful. That attitude affects the context, for example, when your group is so annoyed about job demands that it pushes legislation requiring that all job applications be completed in a language unknown to my group. This legal context will, in turn, affect each group’s behaviour and attitudes, and so on. If the conflict situation is to improve, one, or more likely all, will have to change.

How to use this tool?

Make a separate ABC Triangle for each major party in the organization or different parties.

2. On each triangle, list the key issues related to attitude, behaviour, and context from the viewpoint of that party. (If the parties participate in this analysis, they can each make a triangle from their perspective.)

3. Indicate for each party what you think is their most important needs and/or fears in the middle of their triangle.

4.Compare the triangles, noticing similarities and differences between the parties' perceptions.

Questions for Reflection and Discussion

Why do you think the ABC triangle is important for your work?

How can you use the tool as a model to influence each other in a conflict situation?

How can you draw out learning insights from this lesson?

How can this tool help you know each conflict party's real situation?

3.5 MASLOW'S HIERARCHY OF NEEDS

Abraham Maslow has set up a hierarchy of five levels of basic needs. Beyond these needs, higher levels of needs exist. These include needs for understanding, esthetic appreciation, and purely spiritual needs. In the five basic needs levels, the person does not feel the second need until the first demands have been satisfied, nor the third until the second has been satisfied, and so on. Maslow's basic needs are as follows:

1. Physical needs

For the most part, physiological needs are obvious - they are the literal requirements for human survival. If these requirements are not met (with the exception of clothing and shelter), the human body simply cannot continue to function.

Physiological needs include:

Breathing

Homeostasis

Water

Sleep

Food

Clothing

Shelter

2. Safety needs

With their physical needs relatively satisfied, the individual's safety needs take over and dominate their behaviour. These needs have to do with people's yearning for a predictable, orderly world in which injustice and inconsistency are under control, the familiar frequent and the unfamiliar rare. In the world of work, these safety needs manifest themselves in a preference for job security, grievance procedures for protecting the individual from unilateral authority, savings accounts, insurance policies, and the like.

For the most part, physiological and safety needs are reasonably well satisfied in the "First World." The obvious exceptions, of course, are people outside the mainstream — the poor and the disadvantaged. They still struggle to satisfy the basic physiological and safety needs. They are primarily concerned with survival: obtaining adequate food, clothing, shelter, and seeking justice from the dominant societal groups.

Safety and Security needs include:

Personal security

Financial security

Health and well-being

Safety net against accidents/illness and the adverse impacts

3. Social needs

After physiological and safety needs are fulfilled, the third layer of human needs is social. This psychological aspect of Maslow's hierarchy involves emotionally-based relationships in general, such as:

Friendship

Intimacy

Having a supportive and communicative family

Humans need to feel a sense of belonging and acceptance, whether it comes from a large social group, such as clubs, office culture, religious groups, professional organizations, sports teams, gangs ("Safety in numbers"), or small social connections (family members, intimate partners, mentors, close colleagues, confidants). They need to love and be loved (sexually and non-sexually) by others. In the absence of these elements, many people become susceptible to loneliness, social anxiety, and clinical depression. This need for belonging can often overcome the physiological and security needs, depending on the strength of the peer pressure; an anorexic, for example, may ignore the need to eat and the security of health for a feeling of control and belonging.

4. Esteem

All humans need to be respected and have self-esteem and self-respect. Also known as the belonging need, esteem presents the normal human desire to be accepted and valued by others. People need to engage themselves to gain recognition and have an activity or activities that give the person a sense of contribution, to feel accepted and self-valued, be it in a profession or hobby. Imbalances at this level can result in low self-esteem or an inferiority complex. People with low self-esteem need respect from others. They may seek fame or glory, which again depends on others. However, it may be noted that many people with low self-esteem will not be able to improve their view of themselves simply by receiving fame, respect, and glory externally, but must first accept themselves internally. Psychological imbalances such as depression can also prevent one from obtaining self-esteem on both levels.

Most people need stable self-respect and self-esteem. Maslow noted two versions of esteem needs, a lower one and a higher one. The lower one is the need for the respect of others, the need for status, recognition, fame, prestige, and attention. The higher one is self-esteem, strength, competence, mastery, self-confidence, independence, and freedom. The last one is higher because it rests more on inner competence won through experience. Deprivation of these needs can lead to an inferiority complex, weakness, and helplessness.

Maslow stresses the dangers associated with self-esteem based on fame and outer recognition instead of inner competence. Healthy self-respect is based on earned respect.

5. Self-actualization

The motivation to realize one's own maximum potential and possibilities are considered the master motive or the only real motive, all other motives being its various forms. In Maslow's hierarchy of needs, the need for self-actualization is the final need that manifests when lower-level needs have been satisfied. Classical Adlerian psychotherapy promotes this level of psychological development, utilizing the foundation of a 12-stage therapeutic model to realistically satisfy the basic needs, leading to an advanced stage of "meta-therapy," creative living, and self/other/task-actualization. Maslow's writings are used as inspirational resources.

https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/ad/Expanded_Maslow%27s_Needs.webp

An interpretation of Maslow's hierarchy of needs represented as a pyramid with the more basic needs at the bottom.

Questions for Reflection and Discussion

Why do you need to understand why people behave the way they do?

How are motivation and behaviour related?

How does an understanding of Maslow’s hierarchy affect your leadership ability?

Why would challenging work motivate you?

How can your intrinsic motivation influence others?

How will understanding what you have learned to help you become a better leader?

Should we teach people to transcend their cultural conditioning and become world citizens? How?

Should we teach people to transcend trifling problems and grapple with the serious problems in life, including injustice, pain, suffering, and death?

CHAPTER FOUR: PEACEBUILDING ACTIVITIES AT THE GRASSROOTS

Working on peacebuilding activities at the grassroots level may include the following aspects:

Work on conflict resolution and prejudice reduction – before, during, and after violent conflict

Human rights education – before, during, and after

Non-violent advocacy and advocacy training – before, during, and after

Psycho-social and post-war trauma support work – during and after

Reconciliation work, including local peace commissions – before and after

Rebuild the physical infrastructure – after

Enhance or rebuild economic and agricultural economic base – before and after

De-mobilize and reintegrate soldiers – during and after

Integrate displaced populations and refugees – during and after

Peace education for children and youth – before, during, and after

Emergency assistance – during and immediately after

Support or network with other local peacebuilding organizations – before, during, and after

Inter-religious and inter-ethnic dialogue – before, during, and after

PEACEBUILDING ACTIVITIES AT THE MIDDLE LEVEL

Working on peacebuilding activities at the middle level may include the following aspects:

Conduct conflict resolution and problem-solving workshops – before, during, and after violent conflict

Reconciliation work, including peace commissions – before, during, and after

Act as intermediaries between parties – before and during

Media and communications work – before, during, and after

Support networks of people interested in peace – before, during, and after

Inter-religious and inter-ethnic dialogue – before, during, and after

Conflict resolution and prejudice reduction training – before, during, and after

PEACEBUILDING ACTIVITIES AT THE TOP LEVEL

Working on peacebuilding activities at the top level may include the following aspects:

Act as intermediaries between parties – before and during violent conflict

International advocacy in situations of violent conflict for a cease-fire, peacekeeping, monitoring of agreements, or other political measures – before, during, and after

Give input into high-level negotiations – before, during, and after

Inter-religious and inter-ethnic dialogue – before, during, and after

Questions for Reflection and Discussion

What are the main factors to enable peacebuilding activities at different levels?

How can you transform this knowledge into a practical development program that will respond to your community's needs?

How to influence the factors, which organizations can do what, and how to work together?

4.1 PEACEBUILDING CAPACITY

Vertical capacity:

Vertical capacity is relationship-building across leadership, authority, and responsibility levels within a society or system, from the grassroots to the highest leaders. It requires awareness that each level has different needs and unique contributions, but ultimately that levels are interdependent and require the explicit fostering of relationships and communication across levels.

Horizontal capacity:

Horizontal capacity is relationship-building across lines of division in systems and societies divided by identity conflicts. For example, grassroots groups usually affiliated with one identity group and other groups associated with another in conflict exist at the grassroots level. These grassroots groups can establish linkages across conflict lines.

Vertical and horizontal Integration:

This is a strategy for seeking change across conflict lines. It explicitly supports processes that link individuals, networks, organizations, and social spaces that demonstrate a capacity for both vertical and horizontal capacity building. By integrating both vertical and horizontal capacities, we are working toward a more just and peaceful society.

There are Five Operating Principles for Peacebuilding

Strategic Process (How we work)

Infrastructure (Build foundation)

Interdependent (Connected relationships)

Sustainable (Long term viability)

Comprehensive (Overarching vision)

PEACEBUILDING FRAMEWORK

Questions for Reflection and Discussion

Buddhists believe that peace can be attained once all suffering ends. How can you apply this concept to achieve your economic development program?

How can we work together to build a foundation of long-term development toward a just and peaceful society?

How can you set your framework for strategic peacebuilding with engaged Buddhism?

4.2 A CASE STUDY: PEACEBUILDING IN CAMBODIA: THE ROLE OF RELIGION1

Catherine Morris

Working Paper, 2000

WHAT IS "PEACEBUILDING"?

Peacebuilding is not confined to crisis intervention and military peacekeeping. Peacebuilding involves a full range of approaches, processes, and stages needed for short, medium, and long-term transformation toward more sustainable, peaceful relationships, governance modes, structures, and institutions. This includes the development of human rights, the legal system, good governance, equitable development, and effective conflict resolution. To be effective, peacebuilding initiatives require careful and participatory planning at various levels of society. It requires coordination among efforts and sustained commitments by local and donor partners.

Many people in foreign development work or missions worldwide are now working with people trying to rebuild their lives and communities in countries that have experienced armed conflicts. International relief and development agencies are aware that short-term relief and crisis intervention, while important, are not enough in torn and traumatized societies. Development organizations are increasingly recognizing the need for their involvement in helping people with post-conflict reconciliation, the development of increased capacity for non-violent conflict resolution, and the building of sustainable peace. Unfortunately, they often do so with minimal background or training in practical concepts of conflict resolution. Often, people must begin work with little background understanding of their workplaces' history, culture, and political context. This is particularly so with short-term missions.

Peacebuilding in Cambodia

Cambodia has focused on the world's most concentrated peacebuilding activities in history. The UN has conducted the most visible and expensive peace effort in Cambodia with more than $1.8 billion spent on the UN Transitional Authority in Cambodia (UNTAC) from 1992 to 1993. In addition to organizing the 1993 election and repatriating many refugees, the UN created safety and support for developing longer-term peacebuilding efforts, including human rights, legal development, and civil society NGOs. However, the UN could not disarm the factions and left in place structures that fostered continued factional power struggle. UNTAC has been criticized for having a "top-down" technology-transfer approach that marginalized local knowledge and skills. Foreign efforts for ongoing peacebuilding still tend to give lip service to understanding Cambodian political, social and religious culture. Few resources have been put into sustained research to elicit Cambodian approaches to conflict resolution and peacebuilding. UNTAC largely ignored the importance of religion in Cambodia, except in the overall context of freedom of religion as part of the panoply of international human rights the UN sought to introduce in Cambodia.

THE CAMBODIA CONFLICTS: A BRIEF HISTORY

The world associates Cambodia's conflicts with the period during the Khmer Rouge regime of 1975 to 1979 and its aftermath, but its troubles have not been isolated to the past three decades. Historically, Cambodia has been caught between expansionist neighbours, European colonial interests, and the agendas of Cold War superpowers, all of which were factors in the rise of the so-called "Khmer Rouge" regime under the leadership of Pol Pot.

Under the Pol Pot regime, Cambodia suffered almost destruction of its societal, institutional, and physical infrastructures. The regime's policies of radical collectivism, nationalist isolation, and continuous internal purges led to the deaths of an estimated 1.7 million men, women, and children. Over a quarter of Cambodia's population died of deprivation, illness, torture, or execution. Most scholars and professionals, including teachers, doctors, and lawyers, were killed, fled abroad, or disappeared. The Buddhist clergy was nearly annihilated, and the practice of religion was forbidden. Buddhist temples, the Islamic mosques of Cambodia's Cham people, and Christian churches were destroyed or desecrated. Books, including virtually all religious and historical literature, were destroyed.

Vietnam expelled the Pol Pot regime in 1979 and installed a government composed of Cambodians who had fled the regime. After a further decade of factional armed conflict and years of peace efforts, the 1991 Paris Peace Accords were reached. The 1993 UN-organized election resulted in a fragile coalition which finally ended in July 1997 with a violent military conflict between the leaders of Cambodia's two coalition prime ministers, Hun Sen of the Cambodia People's Party (CPP) and Prince Norodom Ranariddh of the FUNCINPEC party (FUNCINPEC is the French acronym for the Front Uni National pour un Cambodge Indépendant, Neutre, Pacifique et Coopératif). Another internationally monitored election was held in July 1998, resulting in a coalition more clearly controlled by Hun Sen's CPP. The remnants of Khmer Rouge military forces were given amnesties and integrated into the Cambodian armed forces in December 1998.

Current conflicts

Since 1998 political stability has increased. Many Cambodians' lives have improved, but the country is still characterized by poverty, economic and social inequality, corruption, violence, ethnic prejudice, and factionalism. Human rights abuses and poor law enforcement mean there is violence and bullying by authorities, sexual exploitation of children and women, widespread land rights disputes, and labour conflicts. Military, police, and government officials often turn a blind eye or are actively involved. Courts lack independence and resources. There are no trusted government human rights complaint mechanisms. Public frustration with impunity of criminal offenders has led to violent mob street "justice." Generations of war and conflict have meant the breakdown of community structures, relationships, and trust at all levels of society, including the grassroots.

There has been discussion about coming to terms with the Khmer Rouge past, which has deeply traumatized and demoralized the population. Children born after the regime ended to find it difficult to understand or even believe. A number of very senior leaders in the Khmer Rouge regime are now free in Cambodia, including Ieng Sary, who was second in command in the Pol Pot regime. Several other leaders of the Pol Pot regime are in custody awaiting a trial, the terms of which have been internationally arranged with the UN. The idea of a trial of top leaders of the Khmer Rouge regime is widely supported by Cambodians, and after long delays, legislation has been passed that will allow trials. The government has resisted the idea of prosecuting Ieng Sary because of his role in leading Khmer Rouge soldiers into the government fold in 1996. Little consultation has been done with Cambodians concerning what kinds of processes they need to come to terms with the past in meaningful and restorative ways for the Cambodian populace. There are fears that a trial will do little to heal Cambodians' traumas still profoundly suffered. It is also difficult to see what effects trials will have on Cambodia's weak institutions and governance styles.

Religion, conflict, and peacebuilding in Cambodia

Buddhism is Cambodia's state religion. Over ninety per cent of Cambodia's 11.4 million people are Theravada Buddhists. While Buddhist institutions are currently weak, wats (pagoda-monasteries) traditionally have been central in schooling, moral education, community decision making, political advice, spiritual counsel, and conflict resolution. For the Khmer-Buddhist majority, Buddhism is the only institution that cuts across Cambodia's political and social divisions. The Buddhist clergy evokes widespread popular deference and has exceptional power to sway people at the grassroots level. Buddhism is deeply connected to Khmer national identity. Abandonment of Buddhism is often seen as an abandonment of Khmer identity.

Khmer-Buddhism has been the endemic religion of the Khmer people since the thirteenth century. Khmer-Buddhism includes traditional ideas that historically have been part of Khmer culture, including statements about ethical governance, peace, forgiveness, and justice. Some Buddhist concepts have been seen to foster apathy, inequalities, and injustices, such as the Buddhist doctrine of Kamma and some interpretations of Buddhist teachings about forbearance and forgiveness. Buddhist concepts of peace, forgiveness, and justice have been politically manipulated in Cambodia. These concepts and how they are being manipulated are discussed in the full report.

Buddhist revival over the past decade means there are now about 50,000 monks in Cambodia. About 4,000 pagodas have been restored using villagers' lay offerings. In general, however, Buddhism is very weak in Cambodia largely because of the destruction of religion during the Khmer Rouge period. Internal weakness within the Buddhist clergy means increased ability of political players to manipulate Khmer-Buddhism. Nevertheless, Buddhism maintains strong popular support, and monks have strong public influence.

The work inspired by a Buddhist monk, Venerable Maha Ghosananda, is the most frequently cited example of religiously-based peacebuilding in Cambodia. Maha Ghosananda is the founder and remains the spiritual leader of the Dhammayietra peace movement in Cambodia, which work has been highly respected and has been widely seen as effective in calming the public and encouraging them to vote in the 1993 and 1998 elections. Many Cambodian laypeople and non-governmental organizations have been involved in this popularly respected peace movement, discussed in the full report, and in more depth in Catherine Morris, "Case Studies in Religion and Peacebuilding: Cambodia," in Religion and Peacebuilding, edited by Harold Coward and Gordon Smith (New York: SUNY Press, forthcoming 2002).

Roles of Christians

Catholics have had a small presence in Cambodia since the 1550s and Protestants since the 1920s. Cambodian Christians themselves now form a tiny minority of about 40,000 people, including about 15,000 Catholics. Historically, the Christian Church has not strongly attracted the Khmer people. Few were converted over the centuries by the Roman Catholic missions, with similarly few conversions from Protestant missions in the early twentieth century. Between 1970 and 1975, however, there were thousands of conversions to Christianity as the war intensified and refugees from the countryside poured into Phnom Penh. During the 1980s, Christian organizations such as Quaker organizations, the Mennonite Central Committee, the Church World Service, the Lutheran World Service, World Vision, and other church-based organizations were among those who first went in1979 with humanitarian aid to start to address the desperate needs of refugees and internally displaced Cambodians.

Currently, Cambodian churches are concerned about conflicts, but the churches are small and have few resources to address peacebuilding or conflict resolution. Foreign Christian efforts have been most prominent in social services, health care, and rural development. Some missions emphasize development and others evangelization. Quakers, Mennonites, and Catholics have been most prominent in peace work. They work with local communities and organizations, including Buddhist organizations, to facilitate the development of local knowledge and strategies for conflict resolution and peacebuilding.

Not all church presence has been seen as conducive to peacebuilding. Some initiatives have created conflict. Assertive evangelistic proselytization has offended many. Nevertheless, Christianity attracts many Cambodians who have suffered a crisis of faith because of their war experiences, the Khmer Rouge period and the subsequent slowness of recovery. Some believe Christians have strategically targeted traumatized people, criticizing their Buddhist beliefs as ineffective and offering Christianity a better alternative. Even though Christians are a tiny minority, there is some concern that church growth and the high-profile assertiveness of evangelical Christian missionaries may foster a climate for future conflict. Both Christians and Buddhists see increased inter-faith dialogue as one way to prevent seeds of religiously-based conflict from growing. Also urged is the facilitation of local church growth in keeping with Cambodian culture, rather than using foreign strategies.

Conclusions

While there has been a revival of Buddhism since the end of the Khmer Rouge period in 1979, the future of Cambodian Buddhism is uncertain. The clergy is weak, and for most Cambodians, Buddhism is shallow in daily ethical practice or spiritual discipline. While some Cambodians fear Buddhism will give way to Christianity, Cambodia's historic animistic folk religions and spirit worship are deeply rooted. Some Buddhist doctrines such as karma are also pervasive and deeply rooted, and there are strong historical, cultural, and emotional bonds to Khmer-Buddhism.

This study points out risks in "charity"-oriented or advisory approaches to the mission that is ineffective at best or at worst foster continued foreign dependence. There are dangers from foreign evangelistic stances that fail to understand or respect local culture and religion. However, a decade of religiously-based peace work shows the good fruits of facilitative foreign approaches to peacebuilding and development, compared to advisory, top-down approaches. From a religious mission’s perspective, this study shows how Buddhist-Christian collaboration can be effective in areas of common concern for peacebuilding and conflict resolution to increase interfaith dialogue wherever possible.

Questions for Reflection and Discussion

What do you think are the main roles of Buddhist monks today?

How can Buddhist monks help improve the current situation of engaged Buddhism in peacebuilding and development?

Should Buddhist monks cooperate with other religions? Why?

4.3 PRACTICAL INTERFAITH FOR PEACE

What is interfaith?

In 2001, Marcus Braybrooke¹ wrote:

“The true teaching of each religion is a message of peace, unity, and love…The sacred heritage of the great faiths is a rich resource for all people searching for a fairer and more harmonious world…The first step in ending religious hostility is to dispel prejudice and ignorance by teaching about other people's religious beliefs and practices and providing opportunities for members of different religions, especially young people, to meet and get to know each other. Only then can religions unite in service.”

The Origins of Interfaith as a Contemporary Movement

Interfaith as a dialogue between people of different religious traditions has been happening ever since people began to identify themselves with a particular type of religious belief and practice. Interfaith as a contemporary or modern movement is understood to have begun with the 1st Parliament of the World’s Religions in Chicago in 1893.

When the parliament opened on 11 September 1893, more than four thousand people crowded into the hall of Columbus. Representatives of a dozen faiths marched down the aisle at ten o'clock, arm in arm. On the platform, the central position was taken by Cardinal Gibbons, ‘clad in scarlet robes’…Henry Barrows describes those seated next to the Cardinal. ‘On either side of him were grouped the Oriental delegates, whose many-coloured raiment vied with his own in brilliancy. Conspicuous among these followers of Brahma and Buddha and Mohammed was the eloquent monk Vivekananda of Bombay, clad in gorgeous red apparel. His bronze face surmounted with a huge turban of yellow. Beside him in orange and white sat B.B. Nagarkar of the Brahmo-Samaj and Dharmapala from Ceylon.’ One can sense the organizers’ excitement…that, after all the time and correspondence, people from around the world had assembled in Chicago. Names on papers had begun to become friends. As Barrows said in his opening address, ‘When, a few days ago, I (Braybrooke, 1893) met for the first time the delegates who have come to us from Japan, and shortly after the delegates who have come to us from India, I felt that the arms of human brotherhood had reached almost around the globe.

The Interfaith Movement Now

After the first Parliament in 1893, groups began to consider the relationships between religions and the need for better communication and cooperation to address common local, national, and global concerns. A growing interest and curiosity arose about the ‘other’ and what s/he might think and believe and do. This was linked to discoveries in theology and science that undermined the certainties of earlier generations. It also led to increased interaction between cultures and beliefs as people migrated and travel became more affordable.

In 1993 the whole year was dedicated to inter-religious understanding and cooperation. Among many interfaith events worldwide, there was the second Parliament in Chicago to mark the first centenary. This special 1993 year and the second Parliament gave rise to several newer developments in the interfaith movement. Today, there are a number of local, national, and international interfaith organizations addressing a wide variety of issues and concerns.

In March 2001, the International Interfaith Centre convened a meeting in Oxford attended by representatives from 14 international interfaith organizations. During the meeting, an agreement was reached to network to improve communication and cooperation informally.

Types of Interfaith Activity

There are many different reasons for interfaith activity, so there are many different types of interfaith engagement. Here are some of the definitions given by a selection of scholars.

Professor John Hick, philosopher and theologian, has taught on both sides of the Atlantic, has engaged with Hindus and Sikhs in India and Buddhists in Sri Lanka and Japan, and has been part of international Buddhist-Christian Jewish-Christian-Muslim dialogue groups. He identified three main types of interfaith activity:

The first is highly intellectual – this was the international Buddhist-Christian dialogues that went on for several years based in the States.

The second was a Jewish-Christian-Muslim trialogue, mostly in the US, but we met in Jerusalem once we met. And this was between intellectuals of the different faiths. It was a matter of trying to understand one another’s belief systems and discussing them – not trying to persuade each other that they were wrong but learning from the others. And I would say that in the Buddhist-Christian one, we Christians found it changed our ideas and ways of thinking a lot more than the other way round.

The third thing I mentioned in Handsworth (Birmingham, UK) was where people of different faiths were getting together to cope with specific local concrete problems.

Professor Diana Eck is a Professor of Comparative Religion and Indian Studies at Harvard University and a member of the Faculty of Divinity. Since 1991, she has been heading a research team at Harvard to explore the new religious diversity of the United States and its meaning for the American Pluralist experiment. She has identified these six categories:

The first is parliamentary-style dialogue. She traces this back to the 1893 World’s Parliament of Religions. She sees it carried forward by the international interfaith organizations, although…their way of working is now very different from the approach of the World’s Parliament.

Secondly, there is institutional dialogue, such as the regular meetings between representatives of the Vatican and The International Jewish Committee for Inter-religious Consultations.

Thirdly, theological dialogue takes seriously the questions and challenges people of other faiths face.

Fourthly, dialogue in a community or the dialogue of life is the search for good relationships in ordinary life.

Fifthly, spiritual dialogue is the attempt to learn from other traditions of prayer and meditation.

Lastly, inner dialogue is ‘that conversation that goes on within ourselves in any other form of dialogue.’

Rabbi Dr. Norman Solomon retired in 2001 from the Oxford Centre for Hebrew and Jewish Studies, where he was a Fellow in Modern Jewish Thought. He is a member of Wolfson College, Oxford, and the faculties of Theology and Oriental Studies of Oxford. He has written several books, including Judaism: A Very Short Introduction (Norman, S. 2000).

Norman Solomon, previously Director of the Centre for the Study of Judaism and Jewish/Christian Relations at Selly Oak, Birmingham, said in his inaugural lecture there:

Dialogue admits of degrees: there is a dialogue of value though it does not reach deep. Much of the dialogue between Jews and Christians is simply learning to be nice to each other, trying a little to understand what the other is doing, cooperating in social endeavours…Many ordinary Jews or Christians lack the skills necessary to engage in a more profound, theological debate and are rightly wary of setting their faith at risk in a confusing enterprise. Yet the heart of dialogue is in talk together of theologians of both faiths, for they are concerned with the meaning of life at its deepest level. It is they who translate from the doctrinal formula to the underlying reality.

Reasons for Interfaith Activity

What is an interfaith activity for? Is it:

a) A process to bring better understanding between religious people and communities?

For an example of this, read the following extract from The Challenge of Grass-Roots Peace-Making in Israel/Palestine: The Example of Open House by Peter Riddell

To what degree can ‘grass-roots peace-making effect bringing justice in power relations between nations? Many of those engaged at this level must have asked themselves this question as violence exploded between Palestinians and Israelis just days after this evening event.

b) A theological exchange to determine what is shared and different about world religions?

For an example of this, read the following extract from From Fundamentalism to Interfaith Dialogue? By Richard Thompson

Part of the Hindu input was a helpful reminder to us about the limitation of words and concepts. We (interfaith community) were delighted to be told a parable of an "Inter-Number Conference."

c) An attempt to create a new world religion?

No examples - this hasn’t succeeded yet! However, many people feel threatened by interfaith because they feel this is its agenda. This may indeed be the case for some, who see an ultimate harmony in such a unitary world religion, just as several historical traditions have, at one time or another, felt that the world would be blessed if everyone converted to that particular tradition. However, the overwhelming majority of those involved in interfaith activity recognize the richness and blessing of religious diversity and hope to learn something more from interfaith about the Divine Reality.

d) Something else?

Issues-based activity, for instance, to address poverty and development?

For an example of this, read the following extract from Values and Transformation: Changing World Economics by Kishore Shah

Andrew Rogerson, the World Bank Representative for the United Kingdom and Ireland, explained how the World Bank was trying to put new approaches into place by assisting governments in developing countries to develop their strategies.

Or for inner transformation and social harmony?

For an example of this, read the following extract from On the Practice of Meditation by John Hick:

For some years, I have been practising meditation in a faltering way, using the mindfulness (satipatthana) method that I learned from the Sri Lankan Buddhist monk Nyanaponika Mahathera, whom I first met in his forest hermitage outside Kandy some twenty-five years ago.

Building Good Relations with People of Different Faiths and Beliefs

As members of the human family, we should show each other respect and courtesy. In our dealings with people of other faiths and beliefs, this means exercising goodwill and:

Respecting other people's freedom within the law to express their beliefs and convictions

Learning to understand what others believe and value and letting them express this in their terms

Respecting the convictions of others about food, dress, and social etiquette and not behaving in ways that cause needless offence

Recognizing that all of us at times fall short of the ideals of our traditions and never comparing our ideals with other people's practices

Working to prevent disagreement from leading to conflict

Always seeking to avoid violence in our relationships

When we talk about matters of faith with one another, we need to do so with sensitivity, honesty, and straightforwardness. This means:

Recognizing that listening as well as speaking is necessary for a genuine conversation

Being honest about our beliefs and religious allegiances

Not misrepresenting or disparaging other people's beliefs and practices

Correcting misunderstanding or misrepresentations not only of our own but also of other faiths whenever we come across them

Being straightforward about our intentions

The participants accept the informal inter-faith meeting; there is a particular responsibility to ensure that the religious commitment of all those present will be respected. All of us want others to understand and respect our views. Some people will also want to persuade others to join their faith. In a multi-faith society where this is permitted, the attempt should always be characterized by self-restraint and a concern for the other's freedom and dignity.

INTERFAITH DIALOGUE IN CAMBODIA

The Asia-Pacific regional interfaith dialogue process began in Yogyakarta in

December 2004. Australia, Indonesia, New Zealand, and

the Philippines co-sponsored the first dialogue, which brought together delegations of 10 faith and community leaders from 14 countries in South East Asia and the Pacific. The process continued with meetings in Cebu, the Philippines, in 2006 and Waitangi, New Zealand, in 2007. Cambodia hosted the fourth dialogue in Phnom Penh on 2-4 April 2008.

After Yogyakarta, a delegation from Fiji was invited to join the dialogue to increase Pacific representation. The 15 countries that have taken part in subsequent dialogues are Australia, Brunei Darussalam, Cambodia, Fiji, Indonesia, Lao PDR, Malaysia, Myanmar, New Zealand, Papua New Guinea, the Philippines, Singapore, Thailand, Timor L’Este, and Vietnam.

Phnom Penh Declaration

The outcomes of the workshops were embodied in a declaration at the end of the Dialogue, which noted that:

“In reflecting on our progress since Jogjakarta in 2004, two realities have encouraged us. First, many countries have already demonstrated significant progress in promoting stable and cohesive communities.

Second, it is now clear that many practical initiatives at all levels of society have been implemented and have reduced religious disharmony and engendered cooperation towards the common good.

In this light, we have agreed to commit ourselves to work towards the following in conjunction with governments and other sectors of society:

multi-faith dialogue and cooperation;

peace as a sacred priority;

increased participation by women and youth in interfaith dialogue;

sharing with our communities’ successful examples of multi-faith dialogue and cooperation and encouraging others to participate; and

interfaith cooperation that addresses issues of critical community concerns in our region, such as poverty, HIV, human rights, environmental issues, and natural disasters.”

The declaration included an action plan with 17 recommendations:

Relationships

We encourage governments to investigate possible mechanisms for maintaining regional interfaith activity between Dialogues.

We recommend further cooperation on developing bilateral (country-to-country) programs and projects, encouraging interreligious cooperation and understanding.

We encourage a stronger focus on dialogue within religions, including intra-faith dialogue at national and regional levels.

???

Education and Capacity Building

We recommend bringing educationalists together to develop curricula to promote interfaith understanding and human rights from religious perspectives.

We acknowledge the value of contemplative spiritual practices as an aid to promoting peace and resolving conflict.

We recommend improving the religious education handbook to help promote moderate religious views among youth.

Conflict Resolution and Peace Building

We recommend utilizing religious and spiritual leaders of standing to assist in resolving inter-communal conflicts and tensions within the region.

We recommend strengthening collaborative religious structures and networks for developing conflict resolution skills, practices, and attitudes in areas of inter-communal conflict.

We recommend exploring the possibility of joint projects and activities, engaging people across faith traditions in areas of communal tension.

We recommend sharing case studies of effective examples of responding to violence.

Grassroots initiatives

We recommend helping communities learn more about each other through informal settings such as community gatherings, festivals, sporting events, or projects.

We recommend broadening the dialogue process to include more of those not currently involved.

We recommend the development of mechanisms by which the role of women in interfaith activity can be further recognized, including through the establishment of women’s interfaith forums and by providing training and support.

We recommend strengthening multi-religious youth networks across the region and encouraging cooperation, including exchange programs, camps, and training programs.

Media and Promoting Interfaith Understanding

We encourage the media to balance freedom of speech with responsibility.

We will work to ensure a positive contribution by the media in building understanding between religions and faiths regarding how biased and inflammatory reporting may foment division.

We recommend further training to assist faith leaders in communicating effectively with and through the modern media.

4.4 INTERFAITH DIALOGUE

As noted in the New Zealand delegation’s presentation above, the process of regional interfaith dialogue that began in Yogyakarta in 2004 has undoubtedly contributed to stronger interfaith relationships both nationally and in the Asia Pacific region and to an increase in interfaith activities at the grassroots level, international exchanges, regional support for global interfaith initiatives and initiatives in education programs both nationally and between countries.

The delegation in Phnom Penh reflected the trust growth between faiths and national delegations throughout the four dialogues, the increasing commonality of purpose, and the focus on practical action. Religious tensions in the region have undoubtedly reduced over that period, and while the dialogue process may have only been one contributing factor, it has undoubtedly contributed.

At each dialogue, the New Zealand delegation has undertaken the initiative in convening intra-faith meetings. We continue to find these invaluable components of the overall process, and we hope that they will be an integral part of the official program for future dialogues.

We noted that an omission in the process to date had been any consideration of the importance of developing interfaith awareness in business enterprises and in building economic relations and considered this might be placed on the agenda for future meetings. We were also aware of our responsibility in reporting back to our communities and encouraging the development of dialogue between the leaders of faith communities and the government within New Zealand.

We were happy with our input into the Phnom Penh Declaration and Action Plan, particularly in relation to increasing participation by women and youth and the pursuit of peace as a sacred priority. We supported the recommendations in the Action Plan and commended them to government and faith communities.

“There is no solution for us other than then to agree on a united approach, through dialogue among religions and civilizations.”

“We all believe in one God... Religious leaders have to work together to restore respect for ethical values and to avoid a clash of civilizations.” - King Abdullah Ibn Abdul Aziz Al Saud.

Questions for Reflection and Discussion

Imagine you had just two sentences to describe to a relative or friend what you think interfaith is and what it does. Write those two sentences now and keep them in mind as you read through this session.

How can you engage interfaith activity in your program?

Which organization do you think would be most useful to you in the area of interfaith activity that most interests you? Write the outline of an interfaith activity that you might like to develop in cooperation with this organization.

SCENARIO ON RELIGIOUS FREEDOM

The majority of the population from Country A is from one dominant faith. As such, this faith’s institutions influence the government’s policies and education programs. While the country’s Constitution guarantees religious freedom, some minority and ethnic groups operate in the country. They are required, however, to have state authority to function. Under this policy, places of worship must conform to established zoning laws.

Members of one minority group have held “house church” meetings because they do not have enough financial resources to have their centre. This group claims they are not breaking any criminal laws and have a right to religious freedom and private meetings in their own homes. However, parents in the neighbourhood have complained to the authorities that minors are attending these meetings, are being “brainwashed” by their teachings, and are being encouraged to convert.

Some members of the dominant faith in Country A have raided a few of the “house church” meetings and threatened the participants.

Your group represents an international organization that is to issue advice to the parties concerned about resolving this conflict. What kind of brief statement would you make?

Some questions to reflect on:

Does the government have the right to break up these meetings and/or declare them illegal? If so, on what grounds?

What responsibilities do the minority faith group and/or members of the dominant faith have to the community?

Is there additional information, in this case, you would want to ask for?

Are there creative solutions to the above problems that would bring people together rather than create more divisions?

CAMBODIA: THE INTERFAITH INITIATIVE FOR PEACE AND THE DHAMMAYIETRA PEACE WALK

Cambodia suffered tremendous destruction under the Khmer Rouge regime from 197579, including the massacre of an estimated 1.7 million people due to policies of radical collectivism, nationalist isolation, and continuous internal purges. The Buddhist clergy was nearly annihilated, and the practice of religion was forbidden. Buddhist temples, the Islamic mosques of Cambodia's Cham people, Christian churches, and religious books and literature were destroyed or desecrated. According to Beatrice Pouligny, "After the defeat of the Khmer Rouges, the Vietnamese authorities who controlled the country sent bonzes to Vietnam for training and rapidly saw that it was in their interest to get the support of the clergy for rebuilding the country. In the refugee camps on the borders, the bonzes were similarly used by all parties in the conflict, essentially as a means of social control. In this context, there emerged in exile true leaders who advocated a bigger role for the bonzes and built up considerable political and financial support networks in Europe and the United States, most often connected with Cambodian political networks. They mobilized in favour of peace and were present at all the peace talks."¹ They also played an important part in the civic education program preceding the general elections of 1993.

Some Buddhist leaders advocated the importance of "Buddhism as a possible bridge between the Western idea of human rights and Khmer values."² After the peace agreements, several religious initiatives tried to help Cambodians find a way to peace, deal with a traumatic past, and cope with a daily life that continues to be characterized by poverty, economic and social inequality, corruption, violence, ethnic prejudice, and factionalism. Among the ongoing religion-based programs are the Interfaith Initiative for Peace in Cambodia and the Dhammayietra peace walk.

In 1992, a number of local and foreign peace activists initiated the first Dhammayietra Peace Walk (literally, "a Pilgrimage of Truth"). It has taken place around the time of the Cambodian New Year ever since. Villagers along the way see the walk and the gradual return of Buddhism and Buddhist monks as a sign that peace is real, despite the continued hardships resulting from the war. In 2004, the walk included a group of 140 monks, laypeople, and volunteers who persevered through a 6-km hike up a steep rocky trail and climbed the steps of Preah Vihear, a mountaintop temple in northern Cambodia. They completed a 21-day 375-km walk through the Cambodian countryside.

The walk is meant to promote the ideals of Buddhism: compassion, loving-kindness, generosity, honesty, and tolerance. It also acts as a reminder of the absence of war. Pilgrims from all religions, nationalities, and backgrounds participate, united only by a commitment to peace and truth. Canadian anthropologist Monique Skidmore observes that the Dhammayietra is a "new cultural ritual of remembering" and that "through the creation of new collective memories it will allow some Cambodians to emerge from the culture of violence created by the last twenty years of war."

For more information:

Morris, Catherine. "Peacebuilding in Cambodia: The Role of Religion." In Religion and Peacebuilding, edited by Harold Coward and Gordon S. Smith. New York: State University of New York Press, 2003.

Dhammayietra Centre for Peace and Nonviolence. "Step by Step on the Way to Peace: The Dhammayietra Walk-in Cambodia."

Khemacaro, Yos Hut. "Steering the Middle Path: Buddhism, Non-Violence and Political Change in Cambodia." ACCORD 5 (November 1998): 7176.

Ngin, Chanrith, ed. "Minutes of Workshop on Strategies for Peace and Non-Violent Actions in Cambodia." Minutes from the workshop, Phnom Penh, Cambodia, May 2829, 1998.

CHAPTER FIVE: UNDERSTANDING NONVIOLENCE

Definition of Nonviolence

By Mark Shepard

1. Scope of the definition. Does the prohibited violence include physical violence only? Or does it also include psychological violence (such as name-calling or isolation)?

2. Attitude toward the opponent. Is there an attitude of antagonism in which the opponent is seen as an enemy? Or is there active caring for the opponent, with their welfare considered?

3. Intent of action. Is it to force the opponent to make changes against their will (coercion)? Or to change the opponent’s mind and win them over to the other side (conversion)? Or something in between those two?

Nature of the Commitment

1. Extent of the commitment. Does it apply only to certain situations and occasions? Or is nonviolence seen as preferable to violence generally? Or is violence unconditionally renounced in all circumstances?

2. Motivation. Is the commitment to nonviolence based on expediency—superior force of the opponent, lack of weapons, and so on? Or on practical/humanitarian grounds—saying that relative human costs and results of nonviolent action make it a superior method? Or is the commitment based on a moral/ethical/religious principle?

Types of Nonviolent Commitment

Using the parameters above, we can identify two fundamental types of nonviolent commitment, seen as the ends of a spectrum.

At one end is what has been called tactical nonviolence. People committed in this way generally prohibit physical violence, antagonise the opponent, and seek to win their goals by coercion. Their commitment is generally limited to individual actions or campaigns and stems from expediency. A good example is a labour strike.

At the other end is Satyagraha (SOT-yah-GRAH-hah), or Gandhian nonviolence. This is characterized by physical and psychological violence prohibition, active caring toward the opponent, and the intention to convert. Commitment to nonviolence is unconditional and based both on principle and practical/humanitarian considerations.

As a whole, the nonviolence movement in the United States has stood somewhere in between these poles, being a hodge-podge of individuals with varying beliefs, often not fully conscious. This has often led to confusion and dissension when devising and carrying out strategy and tactics. By knowing where everyone stands, such differences can be dealt with and possibly resolved.

5.1 GANDHI'S NON-VIOLENCE

“Gandhi resisted evil with as much vigour and power as the violent resister, but he resisted with love instead of hate. True pacifism is not unrealistic submission to evil power. Rather, it is a courageous confrontation of evil by the power of love.” Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr.

On April 6, 1930, after having marched 241 miles on foot from his village to the sea, Mohandas K. Gandhi arrived at the coastal village of Dandi, India, and gathered salt. It was a simple act, but one which was illegal under British colonial rule of India. Gandhi was openly defying the British Salt Law. Within a month, people all over India were making salt illegally, and more than 100,000 were sent to jail; many fell victim to police violence, but none retaliated or even defended themselves (Herman 99-101).

The Salt March of 1930 was a vital step toward India’s independence from Britain. Gandhi, who was known to many as “Mahatma” (Great Soul), had led the masses of India into a program of massive disobedience to British law; what was most important to Gandhi, however, was that Indians use neither violence nor hatred in their fight for freedom. What was Gandhi’s philosophy? Was he successful?

Elements of Gandhi’s philosophy were rooted in the Indian religions of Jainism and Buddhism. Both of these advocate ahimsa (non-violence), which is the “absence of the desire to kill or harm” (Chapple 10). The Acaranga Sutra, a Jainist text, describes the fundamental need for non-violence: “All beings are fond of life; they like pleasure and hate pain, shun destruction and like to live, they long to live. To all, life is dear” (Chapple 11). Ahimsa is a way of living and thinking which respects this deeply.

Gandhi was both religious (Hindu) and open-minded and saw the different religions as paths to the same goal. He was inspired by the teachings of Jesus, in particular the emphasis on love for everyone, even one’s enemies, and the need to strive for justice. He also took from Hinduism the importance of action in one’s life, without concern for success; the Hindu text Bhagavad-Gita says, “On action alone be thy interest, / Never on its fruits / Abiding in discipline perform actions, / Abandoning attachment / Being indifferent to success or failure” (Wolpert 71).

For Gandhi, ahimsa was the expression of the deepest love for all humans, including one’s opponents; this non-violence, therefore, included a lack of physical harm to them and a lack of hatred or ill-will towards them. Gandhi rejected the traditional dichotomy between one’s side and the “enemy;” he believed in the need to convince opponents of their injustice, not punish them. In this way, one could win their friendship and one’s freedom. If need be, one might need to suffer or die to be converted to love (Shepard 4).

Gandhi also firmly believed that if violence was used to achieve any end – even if it were employed in the name of justice – the result would be more violence. But such pragmatism in matters of non-violence was unimportant to Gandhi. Thomas Merton writes:

"In Gandhi’s mind, non-violence was not simply a political tactic which was supremely useful and productive in liberating his people from foreign rule. On the contrary, the spirit of non-violence sprang from an inner realization of spiritual unity in himself."

This way of thinking reflects the Hindu idea of “being indifferent to success or failure,” described above.

Gandhi’s main tactic in his fight against the British was what he called Satyagraha, which means “Soul-Force” or “The power of truth” (Miller 61). Gandhi developed Satyagraha as the practical extension of ahimsa and love; it meant standing firmly behind one’s ideals without hatred. Satyagraha took the form of civil disobedience and non-cooperation with evil. Civil disobedience involved breaking a specific law if it was believed to be unjust and facing the consequences. The Salt March of 1930, which I described above, was one of Gandhi’s greatest successes in civil disobedience. Salt was necessary to the life of Indian farmers’ cattle, and the British monopoly on salt production had led to massive taxes on the vital substance.

The other element of Satyagraha, non-cooperation with evil, consisted of pulling out all support for an unjust system, such as the British rule of India. This tactic need not break any law but might include boycotting British products, refusing to work for British employers, pulling one’s children out of British schools, refusing to supply the British with services, and not paying taxes (Shepard 3). In 1920, after the British army massacred 400 unarmed demonstrators, Gandhi organized a nation-wide Satyagraha which used non-cooperation techniques such as the ones above, as well as public demonstrations, to “withdraw Indian support from the vast, monstrous Machine of Empire until it ground to a halt” (Wolpert 63).

Although this nationwide strike hit the British hard and led to thousands of Indians being jailed, in 1922, it erupted into violence. A mob of “Satyagrahis” lit fire to a police station, killing two dozen police officers trapped inside. Gandhi called off the entire Satyagraha and apologized for his “Himalayan blunder”; he had mistakenly believed that his followers truly understood non-violence (Wolpert 64).

To examine whether Gandhi’s program of Satyagraha was a success, we must first look at his objectives. I have already mentioned two of his aims -- to earn Indian independence and do it non-violently. In these, Gandhi was successful. India became independent in 1947, with scarcely any violence toward the British, and Gandhi’s leadership was crucial. The struggle had been difficult and long, but, in the end, Britain simply lowered its flag over India and left.

Sadly, however, Gandhi’s dream was not fulfilled. Gandhi was dismayed by Hinduism’s treatment of the Muslim minority in India and the resulting calls for creating a separate Muslim state of Pakistan. Widespread distrust and hatred were growing between Hindus and Muslims and, on the eve of India’s independence, riots erupted all over India. The country became a bloodbath, in which it was estimated that a million lives were lost (Wolpert 69). Many believed that Gandhi’s non-violence had failed.

But had it? In these “months of chaos and terror,” Gandhi spent his time in the most violent areas: “Each night he preached Peace and Love and prayed,” writes Stanley Wolpert. “Gandhi walked from village to village through the heart of that violent madness, [. . .] preaching Ahimsa” (69).

Mohandas K. Gandhi, the “Great Soul,” was anything but a failure. In a world seemingly dominated by violence and hatred, Mahatma Gandhi reincarnated the ancient idea of Ahimsa, non-violence, as the only way of living in peace. His example influenced and inspired many later peaceful struggles, for example, the civil rights movement of Martin Luther King, Jr. Despite India’s shortcomings, Gandhi never lost faith in Ahimsa:

"My faith is as strong as ever. There is no hope for the aching world except through the narrow and straight path of non-violence. Millions like me may fail to prove the truth in their own lives; that would be their failure, never of the eternal law (Merton 74-75).

5.2 MARTIN LUTHER KING'S NON-VIOLENT STRUGGLE

“Now is the time...to make real the promises of democracy.”

Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr., I Have a Dream speech, delivered

August 28, 1963, at the Lincoln Memorial, Washington, D.C

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Dr. King believed each possessed the power to lift himself or herself no matter what his or her circumstances – rich or poor, black or white, man or woman. Teaching literacy skills, showing older adults how to use the Internet, helping people build the skills they need to acquire a job, and other acts of service help improve lives. And they make those citizens who perform the service feel happier and more motivated.

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“We have an opportunity to make a better nation.”

Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr., I See the Promised Land speech, delivered

April 3, 1968, at the Bishop Charles Mason Temple, Memphis, Tennessee

PICK YOUR DREAM

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The Martin Luther King Jr. Day of Service takes the uncertainty out of launching or supporting a volunteer effort. We’ve taken care of the when and how. You have one special day, and together we have an opportunity to change our communities. All you have to do is pick your dream and get to work.

“Everybody can be great because everybody can serve.”

Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr., The Drum Major

Instinct speech, delivered February 4, 1968,

Ebenezer Baptist Church, Atlanta, Georgia

Transformation into an Activist

How did Martin Luther King begin to synthesize those facets of his early education in life and develop an aspiration to change the status quo and adopt nonviolent struggle as the modus operandi? Firstly, he carefully and thoroughly studied the commonly studied texts in the so-called 'classical' or, more accurately, mainstream western education. He studied the classical philosophers Plato, Aristotle, Hobbs, Lock, Rousseau. He also studied Das Kapital and The Communist Manifesto. He concluded that these works represent only a partial truth. He abhorred the separation of the means from the end inherent in all of these systems, as well as the separation of humanity from ideology. He says about his impressions of these philosophies.

'Constructive ends can never give absolute moral justification to destructive means because the end is preexisting in the mean' in the final analysis. In regard to both Capitalism and Marxism, he felt that if human beings are the children of God, the purpose of the state is their welfare, not vice versa. This is entirely relevant in light of the damage done to today's world by rampant consumerism. The transnational corporations, which have largely supplanted the state as the dominant force in human interaction, assume that consumers and client states exist for their benefit. Many nonviolent struggles are fought on the frontier of this new colonialism which goes by the pseudonym globalization. Martin Luther King had examined the undercurrents in the prevailing world-view and rejected them. He had his faith in God as an ultimate view, so the synthesis is. What fulcrum do his ultimate world view (Christianity) and his relative view (action in the world-artha kriya) pivot? This point is crucial because it is the active principle for Martin Luther King and any of us involved in the nonviolent struggle. We may believe in God, morality, communism, or whatever, but at the primary level, these are only ideas. Good or bad ideas can sponsor good or bad action. There is no certainty and no true guiding principle without a bridge between the sacred and the mundane. At this very moment, Buddhist monks who have, by donning robes, asserted a commitment to nonviolence, are participating in violent acts in Sri Lanka, Christians in Serbia are killing Muslims, Hindus whose faith teaches non-harm and non-killing are killing Christians. So it is safe to say that this point is entirely crucial in understanding the nonviolent struggle. Many profess faith in peace, but their actions don't always correspond. It is, in fact, the bridge between the ultimate and the relative, which provides the active principle, connects a person to their source of power and inspiration. How about Martin Luther King’s action principle: He had studied the classics, he had his Christian training, but what finally brought him to the conclusion that action was necessary and that nonviolent struggle was the way? In Philadelphia, Pa., during a Sunday church meeting, Martin Luther King heard a sermon by Dr. Mordecai Wyatt Johnson, the president of Howard University. Dr. Johnson delivered his sermon on the life and thinking of Mahatma Gandhi. I feel it was at this moment that Martin Luther King's ideas and studies became crystallized into a plan of action. After this first indirect encounter with Gandhi through the words of a man who himself had met the Mahatma, King went out and bought as many books as he could find about Gandhi's life and works. In the writings of Gandhi, King began to see certain aspects of his religion in a new light.

The Roots of the Tree of Nonviolent Struggles

In so many ways, all nonviolent struggles worldwide are against injustice, especially institutionalized injustice. The tools often exist in a village or a tribe to resolve conflicts, councils of elders, town meetings, etc. With the rise of the nation-state, the application and end of violence have become far more complex and interpenetrated with all other aspects of culture.

For both Martin Luther King and Gandhi, learning from their experience was a strong component of their programs and unique wisdom. So many leaders have fixed positions or dogmas that they are incapable of learning from their experience. One has to have an open mind and a humble nature to learn from experience. You may enter a situation with a certain way in mind to handle it, this is natural, but true wisdom unites the right view with skilful means. In this case, skilful means implies the ability to examine the causes, conditions, and outcomes in a situation and change in such a way as to be most effective in furthering the cause of the nonviolent struggle.

Gandhi possessed penetrating psychological insights into the dynamics of conflicts and how they might be managed. I use the term manage, as opposed to stop or eliminate because conflict is a part of the natural order of the Universe. It is also important to note that conflict can be a creative process. Both Gandhi and Martin Luther King realized that the creative energy of conflict and conflict resolution could be used for beneficial purposes instead of trying or stamp out all conflict. Conflict is also a natural by-product of struggle, and both Gandhi and King believed that passivity and acquiescence to injustice were not equivalent to peace. In line with his psychological insight, Gandhi saw that the process of struggle emboldened, encouraged, and in so many cases transformed people in beneficial ways.

New Vocabulary

What exactly is the vocabulary of constructive conflict? If the violence in the world order is so well mixed up in and disguised by social structures and violence. Then a new vocabulary is needed as a counterpoint. Arguing for nonviolence in terms of violence semantics is ineffective and may reinforce or justify violent behaviour. In every righteous struggle, there must first be an over-reaching philosophy. I think in the ultimate sense Gandhi and Martin Luther King had a similar basis or philosophy, which underpinned their actions. In a word, it seems that Love, with a capital L, or in the Greek agape, was the bedrock from which they drew strength. For Gandhi, love was part of a trinity of God, Truth, and Love.

One of the unifying factors of Gandhi's underlying philosophy elements is that they are all creative forces. This is why one who holds these principles as the "true north" is the reference point for social action that can never fall into or promote violence. Violence is not a creative force. Even when a goal is attained, if it is through violence-then, it is vulnerable to attack and repudiation by violence. Violence also leaves a bitter aftertaste in the mouth of the defeated; it plants the seeds of future dissent and dissatisfaction. As Dr. King commented on his view of Gandhi's work, "it is rather a courageous confrontation of evil by the power of love, in the faith that it is better to be the recipient of violence than the inflictor of it, since the latter only multiplies the existence of violence and bitterness in the universe." The goal of nonviolent struggle is not to make the oppressed the oppressors but to forge a cooperative society in which all may live peacefully and strive toward human progress together, for Martin Luther King loved was at the fulcrum of a trinity as well as, God, Jesus, and the Holy Spirit.

God is the creator; he created the world by, for, and with the power of love. God is truth, intelligence and wisdom. But he gave humanity free will. The result was that humanity fell away from the link between heaven and earth, which was love, and became blinded by the philosophy seemingly proposed by the phenomenal world. Like the Maya of Hindu thought, the knowledge sought by a man at the primordial beginning of the Christian creation story was pedantic. It was induced by a poverty mentality, to know about the world to garner benefits accruable and attributable to one's self only as opposed to the recognition of interconnectedness and the proper credit for all creation, all knowledge, all sustenance, etc., to God and the force of love in the world. "In the beginning was the word, and the word was God." Jesus Christ was God's love incarnate. A human form teaches and demonstrates the original principles of love, which humanity's continuous and increasing self-love had diminished, or solidifying the ego. The separation of God and man was not through God's action but man's repudiation of the original principles of love, leading to the misunderstanding of inter-connectedness. The Holy Spirit is the acting principle; it is the pervasive and infinite energy available to all who can let down the ego-created barrier to feeling the connection between God and man at the deepest level. (Integrative power)

All of the vocabulary used by Gandhi is undoubtedly well known to the peace studies community; thus, to reprise the most common terms is perhaps not informative at this juncture. However, it is highly relevant in the context of this paper to address some of the vocabulary of Martin Luther King in relation to the main pillars of Gandhian thought: ahimsa, satyagraha, swaraj, hartal, etc. Both of their dialectical styles and content are profound. For Gandhi, he reached into the deepest well of the Indian psyche by making an organic holism out of the triumvirate of truth, God, and love. Gandhi was practical and not too philosophical in his dialectic, i.e., he meant to find a way to motivate people to utilize the power of social change that he knew they had, though they as yet did not. Even so, his trinity, like the Christian one, harks back to cosmology. In the beginning, the world was balanced by a virtual triangle of cosmic forces. Then in the vastness of the primordial past, they began to fall out of synchronicity with each other. Once they were fully dyssynchronous, creation was the only way back to proper balance. The exercise of suffering in and hopefully transcending the Maya of the phenomenal world is the only way that the cycle of rebirth is exhausted. Gandhi's vocabulary may be action-oriented but has a cosmological and spiritual significance and soteriological significance. King's vocabulary is more directly connected to spiritual matters, as it could be no other way. Growing up under slavery and later discrimination, the African American Christians developed a unique homiletic tradition. Spiritual songs about freedom and the Promised Land, redemption, etc., all contain a subtext of aspiration toward justice on earth as well as faith in God and the afterlife. These very spiritual songs communicated news of slave escapes and rendezvous with the Underground Railroad.

Most of the inspirational and educational vocabulary of nonviolence that Martin Luther King used in his preaching and teaching about nonviolence was directly inspired by the Christian gospel. Martin Luther King was deeply and directly influenced by Gandhian thinking in his action-oriented interpretations of Christian concepts. All of the dialectics stem from his understanding and faith in God. Indeed, faith is a key concept, the link or pact between God and humankind. In the Bible, faith is addressed many times, "by faith alone shall ye enter the kingdom of God." Faith is a crucial aspect and especially emphasized in the African American experience of Christianity. Faith was the key to the African American's survival of centuries of slavery. How is faith applied to nonviolent conflict? Naturally, first of all, tenets of the Christian faith specify that a believer must "love thy brother as thyself" and "turn the other cheek." So, the doctrinal background is clear. But how about socially engaged approaches? In what way does faith contribute to the character of the nonviolent struggle for civil rights? Put simply, faith keeps you going in the face of opposition and gives you the strength to persist in nonviolent methods. Martin Luther King often spoke to his followers about being steadfast in applying nonviolence. Through the experience of Gandhi, he knew it could be very effective, but he also knew that if the satyagrahi's discipline failed, it would have disastrous results. This is a double kind of faith. Faith in the Truth of the method and the goal, and faith that God is always beside you, to give you strength in the actual application of the struggle. When asked how she kept calm amid all of the turmoil, Martin Luther King's wife replied, "We believe we are right, and in believing we are right, we believe that God is with us." Martin Luther King added

We have a strange feeling down here in Montgomery that we have cosmic companionship in our struggle for justice. And so, we can walk and never get weary because we believe and know that there is a great camp meeting in the Promised Land of freedom and justice. And this belief, this feeling that God is on the side of truth and justice and love and that they will eventually reign supreme in this universe. This comes down to us from the long tradition of the Christian faith. There is something that stands at the centre of our faith.

King also spoke often of justice: justice and faith go together. He says, "I think every person who believes in nonviolent resistance, believes somehow that the universe is on the side of justice and that something is unfolding in the universe whether one speaks of it as an unconscious process or... some unmoved mover or as personal God, there is something in the universe that unfolds toward justice. Justice represents the higher order of God's law, under which all beings are equal, as they are all God's children. "In Christ, there is neither Jew nor Gentile... male nor female...communist nor capitalist. We are all one in Jesus Christ. And when we truly believe in the sacredness of human personality, we won't exploit people; we won't trample over people with the iron foot of oppression, we won't kill anybody.''

The Fruit of the Tree of Nonviolence¹

I think that the history of Gandhi and Martin Luther King's successes is well known, so I shall discuss the more esoteric benefits of nonviolent struggle as I perceive them instead of the matters of fact and historical record. Without a doubt, the first benefit of adopting a nonviolent approach to conflict resolution is personal transformation. Although the effect may differ for each person, applying nonviolent philosophy to one's life and actions in this world makes a person progressively more peaceful on the inside. Regardless of religious views or the level of one's social activism, nonviolent means are imminently applicable to every situation in life. It is a positive cycle that feeds on itself. The process of nonviolent struggle itself creates and enhances one's transformation, the lessening of greed, anger, and delusion in one's mind and body. Spiritual practice is needed to face the challenges of the very violent world we live in, be it theistic or nontheistic, Hindu, Christian, Buddhist, or whatever. We need not be perfect, but without the sincere and strong aspiration to lessen violence in ourselves, we cannot be helpful to others.

Not all nonviolent struggles achieve tangible successes, but many do. The process of struggle which changes people and softens their hearts creates conditions in which entire societies can be transformed. Even in the absence of political change, the process of nonviolent struggle is creating social change. The effects on society may be hard to measure, but the seeds of peace are planted and fertilized by training and building up skills in conflict resolution. Just as Martin Luther King, who never met Gandhi, was influenced to see his religious background as a metaphysical and sotriological framework and an action principle by Gandhi's example, those who work for peace nonviolently may be influenced immense effect on society in the future. As Else Boulding says, peace is created out of the everyday skills of peaceful problem solving and conflict resolution in families, in neighbourhoods, and among different social, cultural, religious, and ethnic groups within and between societies. Thus, employing nonviolent means as a paradigm for problem-solving can potentially revolutionize our planet utterly. In the past nonviolent struggle was seen as extraordinary and unusual if noble. In the future, we must strive to make it the norm in society from the lowest to the highest level. There are many pressing reasons to do so. The first is moral.

Simply put, it is the right thing to do; it is to follow the Truth. The second is social. Because there are always those who will adopt violent means to struggle for their rights, proponents of nonviolence must beat them to the punch, so to speak - as the violent struggle legitimizes the use of violence to the government's view suppress righteous struggles. The environment is suffering from violence, and no effective and lasting solutions can be found without a stable culture of peace. In addition, environmental damage is linked to social justice as so many people depend on natural resources for their very livelihoods. For all of these reasons and more, we must draw upon the wisdom of Gandhi and Martin Luther King to develop and implement a real plan of action designed to bring about peace, social justice and to foster the development of a culture of peace. This society reflects the precepts on nonviolent problem-solving at all levels.

On a more personal level, I wish to point out some of the ideas gleaned from the life and thought of Gandhi and Martin Luther King. What are some of the lessons of these two giants of nonviolent struggle in the 20th century, and how do these lessons bode for the future? A clear moral understanding must be in place. Archimedes said, give me a level and a firm place to stand and move the world. Without a strong rock on which to stand, it is impossible to personally shoulder the suffering and the responsibility for helping all the beings in the world. Martin Luther King and Gandhi relied on faith in the sacred, Truth, God, Love, and they perceived that these two words are not separate. This sense gives the engaged peace worker an infinite well of energy to rely on and a sense of companionship with something larger than themselves in the universe. A sense that God's law of the law of truth (dharma) is really at work in the world already and that we may harness its power for social change, personal transformation and help us through troubled times.

Another lesson exemplified in the nonviolent struggle of these two great men of the 20th century is the power of the journey, both symbolic and real. Many of their social action campaigns involved a journey, a march to the sea, the country courthouse, a 'freedom ride' to the Deep South, and many others. Something about the nature of a journey or odyssey strikes a chord in everyone's heart, thus creating power for change. Still, the journey itself is symbolic of the inner change that must occur for nonviolence to be effective. Our lives are a journey, and like Martin Luther King and Gandhi, we are continually growing and changing, sometimes subtly other times dramatically. I am reminded of a Buddhist phrase; the journey is the goal. Not every social action campaign is successful on tangible terms. However, it is the act of nonviolent struggle, in essence, the journey, which is of real importance. Thus, the lesson is to honour and recognize that the process of struggle is itself of great value and significance. Never being discouraged from continuing by the lack of apparent success for the journey is the goal as we journey into a new millennium.

NON-VIOLENT ACTION: SOME DILEMMAS￼

5.3 NONVIOLENT ACTION

Looking at the future of nonviolent action at the turn of the present century, described as the bloodiest one in history, may rightfully generate feelings of pessimism. Yet this, otherwise the bloodiest of all phases in human evolution, has witnessed some of the significant successes in nonviolent action entitling it to the status of a legitimate method of struggle against oppression and to bring about desirable social change.

Gandhi is credited to have been the first person to show the efficacy of nonviolence in mass social and political action. He looked upon nonviolence as moral philosophy, a way of life, and an action method. However, nonviolence is becoming attractive more as a method of action than as a principle or a way of life. Seen from a Gandhian angle, such forms of nonviolence cannot be sustained. Gandhi also visualized nonviolence as a dynamic concept and called for the perfecting of the art through practice and adherence to truth. Nonviolence is not a new idea, although elitist construction of history has silenced this aspect. This is said to be the reason for the predominant reliance on improvisation in nonviolent action. Even in those movements avowedly committed to violence, the sheer weariness of violence following protracted conflicts leads the organizers to try civilian forms of unarmed resistance, often with spectacular successes. Nonviolence is becoming popular either by choice or necessity, more often by the latter. The mode of nonviolent action practised, in general, differs from the extremely principled forms that Gandhi, Ghaffar Khan, and King had envisaged. The secularised version sees nonviolence as a method of action, instrumentally conceived, justifiable primarily on rational choice principles rather than on normative grounds, and winning in the conflict find a strong resonance. This does not mean that such practitioners are blind to the moral high ground of nonviolent action. Gene sharp is credited with systematizing nonviolence as a political strategy and is now the foremost theoretician of nonviolent action.

WHAT IS NONVIOLENT ACTION?

Nonviolent strategies are based on noncooperation, political jiu-jitsu, or love of one's enemy, as the case may be. The first is based on the withdrawal of consent, the source of power assuming that the willing cooperation of people as taxpayers, soldiers, etc., is necessary for retention of the power of the ruler, and once this is pulled back, the system will collapse since it cannot exist in a vacuum. The second seeks to fight a ruler by using the unconventional nonviolence method to throw the ruler off his balance. With increasing repression, the number of nonviolent activists and the severity of defiance increase. This leads to sufficient internal opposition among the opponent's usual supporters to reduce his capacity to deal with the defiance. If the purpose of this defiance is to convert the opponent, it becomes moral jiu-jitsu. The instrumental use of this method in politics results in political jiu-jitsu. Theoretically, it is logical to argue that rulers depend on cooperation from the people, and once that is refused, they will come down like a pack of cards. Sharp says," If enough people undertake the withholding for a long enough time, then the regime will have to come to terms, or it will be collapse. Nonviolent action seeks to bring about change in three ways. The first is conversion, which is the rarest. The second is accommodation, which is the most usual. The third is nonviolent coercion, which is the most extreme of all forms.

Sharp is at pains to divest nonviolent action of any semblance of passivity. He says: "Nonviolent action is a means of combat, as is war. It involves the matching of forces and the waging of "battles," requires wise strategy and tactics and demands of its "soldiers’ courage, discipline, and sacrifice'. Sharp also tries to make it different from anarchism. It is based on fear of sanctions and consent emanating extra-constitutional tenor. He says that it is possible to integrate nonviolent action into a constitutional system of government. Here, Sharp defends the state's existence, integrates nonviolent action as democratic, and posits it as a perennial element in society capable of defending and sustaining human freedom. He detaches nonviolence from its normative life forms as Gandhi did in his critique of modem civilization and incorporates it as a legitimate mode of action rooted in liberal democracy.

The debate as to whether nonviolence should be embraced for its intrinsic worth or as a strategy to be evaluated on the criterion of efficacy amounts to raking up an old controversy. But the controversy or confusion remains to haunt several nonviolent actionists, especially those who emphasize the moral superiority of nonviolence. While Gandhi could equally justify the superiority of his methods based on cost-effectiveness, he envisaged it as an incidental rather than a primary reason for nonviolence. This moral stance also finds reflection in the work and thinking of Ghaffar Khan and Martin Luther King. Khan unconventionally located the source of nonviolence in Islam in the teachings of the prophet. Christianity influenced King, and he interpreted Gandhi's ideas in this light. This reliance on a deep spiritual consciousness is still persuasive in the nonviolent tradition. A.T. Ariyaratne says: "Under today's circumstances, the votaries of nonviolence and social justice have to depend almost exclusively on the spiritual Consciousness they can awaken within themselves. They have aggregated these energies into a critical mass capable of affecting the mass psyche of the general population. The external manifestations of such a course of spiritual action that is directed to bringing about a change will manifest itself in the form of fearlessness and sacrifice". In line with the spiritualist tradition, the Dalai Lama envisages compassion informed by love as the basis of nonviolent action. Although principled nonviolence as a lifestyle continues to persist in a number of circles, it is probably the secularised version that is most widely practised. However, this is not to say that they always exist independently or neat categorizations are possible.

The role of organized religion in nonviolent action cannot be discounted at this stage despite its frequent association with conservative forces. For example, the Catholic Church did play an important role in the Philippines and East Timor by providing support to the civilian population engaged in opposition to repression. Timorese's quest for national self-determination was intimately linked with the Catholic church in the latter case. The Anglican church in South Africa allowed the use of church premises by squatters and supported tax resistance and conscientious objection in the struggle against apartheid.

THE BASE OF NONVIOLENT ACTION: THE ADEQUACY OF POWER AND CONSENT

Sharp agrees with the advocates of violence about the importance of power that one should wield power to control one's adversaries. Sharp says that the view of political power held by the advocates of violence is a top-down one: "People depend on governments, that political power is monolithic, that it can really come from a few men and that it is durable self-perpetuating." In contrast, nonviolent power is bottom-up. That is, "government depends on people, that power is pluralistic, and that political power is fragile because it depends on many groups to reinforce its power sources." He says: "the exercise of power depends on the consent of the ruled who, by withdrawing that consent, can even control and destroy the power of their opponent." In sharp's classification, all instances such as the American colonist's struggle against Britain or the 1905 Russian revolution employ nonviolent pressure tactics. Nonviolent action may be used for larger or limited goals. The power of rulers is not intrinsic to them but is external to them, derived from the society they govern. Political power is not a one-sided affair but requires consent for its constant replenishment. This notion of power based on consent is not anything new but Lockean in form, although the institutionalized operation of political power had undermined its consent dimension. Sharp is known for transforming the Gandhi-King-Khan tradition of sacrifice and suffering informed by an internal spiritual resolve into a method of action that meets the dominant Western criteria of technical rationality. Sharp frequently uses strategic parlance to buttress his argument and sell his idea to the strategists and policymakers.

Women, particularly those radically oriented, often question the tendency to idealize nonviolence. Feminists like Adler and Ling say that "The violence against women eludes the techno-rational problem-solving to nonviolence and remains lost to discovery, understanding, and most importantly, the resolution."

Brian Martin tells us that Sharp's simple presentation of patriarchy as one concerning ruler and ruled does not capture the complex processes of upbringing, expectations of a characteristic behaviour, the gender division of labour, harassment, rape, and similar types which are linked to other systems of exploitation or structures like military and the state which are of high priority for Sharp. How can love for the enemy stop rape; how can noncooperation tackle linguistic violence and women's low self-esteem. Taking a structural view, feminists contend that violence is extracted as a purely external physical act and excludes from consideration "the multi-layered institutional origins of violence," which affects women most. Further, "systems of oppression contain forms of power embedded in the structures that create those systems." Further, "the experiences of the oppressed must be seen to constitute different world views rather than represent the margins of some dominant perspective".

Women already love their enemies in view of the system of submission and the internalization of the same through years of struggle. Is it possible to employ a strategy of non-cooperation against patriarchy? asks Adler and Ling. Nonviolence is already practised by women with no effect on their predicament. Hence the new nonviolent discourse reinforces the extant forms of patriarchal oppression rather than addressing them. Political jiu-jitsu requires shared cultural beliefs and norms to affect the opponent. However, citing the effort in Greenham Common, they say that women were represented negatively due to a "dissensus about appropriate female behaviour," suggesting that political 'jiu-jitsu compels women to conform to the very societal conventions that they seek to challenge," Hence the existence of consensus within society is necessarily absent - undermining the effectiveness of nonviolence. In effect what the "love the enemy" idea removes is the element of anger. Instead of serving as a tool for change, this anger or discontent is only reinforced in nonviolence. "In doing so, nonviolence negates any socially redeeming values for violence and its associates like anger. Women need to recognize and accept this anger to end violence against them. If not, they implicitly uphold the legitimacy of their oppression. Patriarchies historically sublimate and alienate women's anger with the myth of the spiritually superior female... Any woman who rejects this moral standard somehow becomes inherently sub-female". That anger is a source of power is often not recognized by the adherents of nonviolence. Marcos Bisticas-Cocoves, a peace activist, says, "I still believe in nonviolent direct action as a tactic, but I have come to have grave misgivings about the political viability of a philosophy that extols love and denigrates anger ..... a philosophy that demands the renunciation of anger as a precondition for action". He believes anger is the source of power, and anger is channelled into pressure to affect those in power, not to convert.

There are also problems with this notion of monolithic power. There are many states which thrive through networks of patron-client relationships. Often the state may be based on a coalition of groups or some degree of diffusion of power. Diffused power systemically oppressive creates problems for nonviolent action, mainly when it is difficult to persuade a sizeable section of society to withdraw consent. The mixed nature of the state makes action difficult on many occasions. Just as the state oppresses, it tends to help certain sections with special privileges and subsidies. The problem becomes increasingly complex in ethnically divided societies in which the state structure and one or more ethnic groups may be simultaneously identified as the problem. It is assumed that the nonviolent magic of transforming or coercing the enemy will work regardless of culture, time, and gender. Gene Sharp universalizes nonviolent action and says that failures are often due to the "weakness in a group employing the technique or the strategy and tactics used." Consider, for example, the case of Burma. Despite popular support for Aung Sang, the junta continues well-ensconced in power. This may be because of the regime's strategies that blacks out information flow to the public and outside and reduce reliance on the outside world, which makes it impervious to global public opinion.

Other modern technologies of mass control often prevent the people from understanding the nature of the crime committed by the regime in power. New instruments of police control provide a flexible but not always less than a lethal coercive response to combat nonviolent action. A design criterion has been to mask the real impact of their effects so that the media do not get an accurate picture of the level of coercion being deployed.

As Sharp claims, we do not have enough empirical evidence to conclude that all changes brought about through nonviolent action will be long-lasting. Consider the communal riots that followed Indian independence and the spectre of conflicts that plague our social structure even today despite the Gandhian heritage. Is this because of nonviolent action unaccompanied by structural analysis? Structural analyses produce excellent material satisfying the needs of academia. Still, they are insufficient for action, a point on which Sharp scores hands down over Galtung, a well-known Peace Researcher inclined to a structural approach. To link one with the other is perhaps the greatest challenge facing nonviolent action today.

INFUSING CONSTRUCTIVE ELEMENTS

Andrew Rigby says that the Gandhian approach of juxtaposing the opposition to evil with positive strategies like the constructive program targeted at the immediate needs of the people while at the same time being futuristic in orientation should be taken seriously. Based on his study of non-violent interventions during the Intifada, he says: "It seems that the most successful kinds of intervention are those which share something of the Gandhian approach to constructive work: intervening to assist those in the conflict zone who are engaged in peace-making activities, intervening to help relieve the suffering of the victims, offering one's services to facilitate dialogue and related processes of reconciliation between enemies. Such constructive modes of intervention are not only oriented to helping meet the expressed needs of the direct parties to the conflict, but they also embody a commitment to creating a more cooperative and peaceful future. They lack the drama and the publicity potential of some of the protest-oriented interventions, but their impact on the conflict situation is invariably more substantial". This aspect and the Gandhian plea for creating more peaceful socio-political structures, which he identifies with non-industrial forms of organization, have not found an echo in the rest of the world. The nonviolent movement largely operates on the assumption that capitalism is an unproblematic system.

CONCLUSION

The future of nonviolence lies in its creative use rather than emphasizing the purity of its application which excludes the possibility of millions of ordinary men and women from partaking in it. The burden of identifying what constitutes a nonviolent act in a particular instance should rest with the people practising it rather than onlookers from outside. It is not right to insist on what is right and wrong based on norms evolved in contexts different from where the real action takes place. This does not mean that a nonviolent movement should divest itself of all purer elements. We should emphasize means as tantamount to the use of the method of nonviolence. The adversary does not often distinguish between one nonviolent action and the other based on intentions that are intrinsic to the actionists. As far as the rulers are concerned, nonviolent action of any kind, principled or strategic, is problematic. Nonviolent action is actor-centred rather than system-centred. Hence the systemic nature of many forms of oppression cannot be accommodated. Its beliefs in universality, the consensus within society, and failure to recognize the subtle forms of oppression irreducible to subject-ruler categories deprive it of its attractiveness to many self-conscious oppressed groups, such as women. It may be necessary to utilize anger as a strategy of mobilization. We should not be wary of striking alliances with movements of a similar kind due to excessive concerns with purism and independence.

Nonviolence should not be seen as a panacea. By their very nature, certain conflicts are resistant to resolution either nonviolently or violently. Force may be necessary to protect the civilian population, as in East Timor, where the UN provides security to the people against attacks by the Indonesian-sponsored civilian militia. Interpositionary efforts have not yielded the expected results either. The role of nonviolence in ethnic conflicts needs to be assessed afresh, given their increasing recalcitrance to nonviolent resolution. Nonviolence cannot serve as a functional alternative to violence at this moment of our social evolution and vice versa. Nonviolence preceded by a high degree of structural consciousness and awareness of the interconnections among systems of exploitation is necessary to gain control over the post-change situation; this remains one of the most critical challenges facing nonviolent action.

CHAPTER SIX: CONFLICT RESOLUTION AND RELIGION

Let's look back at the progress of human civilization. At the initial stage for centuries, a man had to continuously fight the fierce beasts in the jungle and natural disasters for survival. They always had to keep themselves alert against all those hostile elements of the surroundings and circumstances. As a result, man became aggressive, self-centred, ferocious to save him. Gradually, when they learned to live in groups, it became easier to fight against beasts collectively, but there were often clashes between groups due to conflict of interest. Man did not hesitate to kill animals and also men of other groups. Thus, violence and hatred became inherent in human character. With the advent of religions, the good sense developed, and man learned to worship God or some Super Power for their benefit and learned to love others.

According to the Persian cult, Jorothrusta appeared about 3700 years ago and preached love and peace. The most powerful exponent for peace Gautam Buddha was born in India more than 2500 years ago. Millions of people of many countries were inspired by the preachings of Buddha that non-violence and peace is the most valuable asset of human civilization. Jesus Christ sacrificed his life for the cause of love, justice, and peace. Important preaching of the Bible is "Thou Shalt Not Kill." Hazarat Mohammed, the founder of the Islam religion, also preached for justice, peace and love. Though thousands of people were killed in crusades or fights, mainly between Mohamedans and Christians, it cannot be denied that religion played a positive role in removing the sense of hatred and violence in human culture and developing a sense of moral values and love for others. The religious temper of emphasising God or Supernaturalism is gradually losing its strength. In modern times, 'Humanism' emphasizes social justice, human values, service to humankind, and love for all human beings. A rational approach to all-natural phenomena is gradually replacing the dogmatic religious culture. This also denounces hatred and violence.

All these religions play a vital role in developing ethical values in society and a sense of natural justice. Conflict resolution becomes easier when a sense of natural justice prevails in society.

6.1 PEACE PARADIGMS: FIVE APPROACHES TO PEACE

Nathan C. Funk

(The writer is an Adjunct Professor of International Relations at the American University School of international service, Washington D.C., and a visiting fellow at the Center for Global Peace at the same university.)

CONCEPTIONS OF PEACE¹ span religions and cultures, incorporating security, harmony, justice, and human dignity. Every major system of faith and belief, whether religious or secular, has in some way or other promised peace as an outcome of the implementation of its precepts.

While peace is undoubtedly one of the most universal and significant human ideals, Raimon Panikkar describes it as "one of the few positive symbols having meaning for the whole of humanity" the ways we think about peace are often diffuse content-dependent. We profess to honour peace in the abstract--for example, within a framework of religious precepts and affirmations--while organizing our thoughts about life and politics around more mundane ends and objectives. Implicitly, we circumscribe the meaning of peace to accommodate a system of largely implicit beliefs about how the world works, about what power consists of, and about what is expedient. As a result, the peace ideal is either co-opted by competing value priorities or remains distant from our daily activities and experiences. The "ideal" becomes separated from the "real," and peace becomes a pious invocation, a means to an end, or an empty term of rhetorical self-justification.

The paradigms for peace through international law and institutions (world order), peace through conflict resolution, peace through nonviolence, and personal and community transformation. By the end of a semester of reading, writing, discussing, listening to guest speakers, and presenting creative projects, most students attest that they have learned a great deal not only about the history and development of thinking about peace but also about their own deeply internalized beliefs and existential commitments.

1. POWER POLITICS: PEACE THROUGH COERCIVE POWER

The first peace paradigm, power politics or "realpolitik," is the traditionally dominant framework in international relations. This paradigm is grounded in classic works such as Thucydides' History of the Peloponnesian War and a more recent body of political theory that invokes Machiavelli, Hobbes, and Hans Morgenthau's promulgates a pessimistic reading of human nature and a competitive model of international politics. Advocates of this paradigm, who refer to it as "political realism," contend that there are no universal values that all actors in the international system can hold. Furthermore, the absence of a world government or "higher power" to which states must submit themselves renders politics among nations anarchic and unpredictable, characterized by shifting alliances and the ever-present threat of violence. In the face of chronic insecurity and shifting balances of power, states must craft policies that serve the private good of their immediate "national interest" construed as the acquisition of material power and military capability to compel and deter others while steering clear of broader, humanistic ideas that depend on the trustworthiness or goodwill of others for their fulfilment. In other words, because there is no shared moral yardstick that can be used as a basis for stable cooperation among nations, states have no choice but to compete with one another for scarce resources and the security that these resources are believed to provide.

Though not necessarily indifferent to global problems linked to widespread poverty and ecological deterioration, exponents of power politics argue for an outlook of moral minimalism. The world is construed as a "self-help" system. Justice is defined as an absence of gross human rights abuses, such as genocide. Peace is conceptualized simply as an absence of war or, more precisely, as a temporary suspension of hostilities secured by military power. "If you want peace," argue proponents of the power politics paradigm, "prepare for war.' Violence arises inevitably from human competitiveness and covetousness; peace is secured through the forceful imposition of order.

2. WORLD ORDER: PEACE THROUGH THE POWER OF LAW

The second approach to peace explored by the class is the world order paradigm. This paradigm, which views the "order" created by power politics practices as a form of the disorder, proposes that sustained cooperation among states and other significant actors, such as non-governmental (activist) organizations and intergovernmental organizations, is possible and necessary. Cooperation is possible because human nature contains the potential for both selfishness and altruism; cooperation is necessary because the unmitigated competition favoured by the power politics paradigm cannot be sustained.

To affirm that principled cooperation is possible, the world order paradigm emphasizes human choice and intentionality while asserting that nation-states do not have a monopoly on power to shape global politics. The nation-state is not the only forum for political activity and accountability, and the national interest is not the exclusive criterion for desirable behaviour.5 In an age of globalization, politics involves a complex interplay of global and national and local loyalties, values, and interests. Modern communications and transportation technologies have empowered citizens to form transnational networks for advancing concerns linked to peace, human rights, ecology, and development. The concerns of these citizen networks have helped to define agendas both for national governments and for such institutions of global governance as the United Nations. Through conscious design, states and engaged word citizens can operate within the framework of these value-maximizing institutions to move beyond fearful and reactive behaviour, extend the rule of law into the international sphere, and provide global public goods.

It is precisely because of the failure of competitive, state-centred models of international relations to secure human interests that advocates of the world order paradigm argue that broader and more intense efforts to achieve international cooperation are necessary. In a shrinking and increasingly technological world, issues such as poverty (well over a billion of the world's people live in conditions of "absolute" poverty), environmental deterioration, infectious diseases, human rights abuses, and the spread of weapons of mass destruction are of concern to all. These problems cannot be addressed within the overwhelmingly competitive framework of the power politics paradigm and require articulating new values, norms, and programs for multilateral action through international dialogue and cooperation. A more equitable and sustainable system can be realized when governments pool sovereignty in international institutions and collaborate with non-governmental organizations and social movements to provide global public goods.

The world order paradigm paints a different picture of the world than the power politics paradigm, which foregrounds the roles of concerned citizens and ethical values in politics. Power is not only the ability to coerce others through the capacity to hurt or punish (destructive/ threat power-"the power of the stick"), but also the ability to reach shared objectives through collaboration (productive/exchange power-"the power of the carrot") and solidarity (integrative/social power-"the power of the hug'). Whereas the "power politics" paradigm views peace as a temporary absence of war within a self-help system of sovereign states, the world order paradigm equates peace with the presence of certain value conditions that are required for human flourishing and long-term survival within a global context: nonviolent conflict resolution, human dignity, development, ecological balance, and political participation.8 "If you want peace," proposes the world order paradigm, "prepare for peace." Peace can be actively sought through policies and efforts that build consensus, reduce injustice, create opportunity, and provide multilateral frameworks for responding to common challenges.

3. CONFLICT RESOLUTION: PEACE THROUGH THE POWER OF COMMUNICATION

The third paradigm, conflict resolution, offers a highly pragmatic approach to peace through developing and refining skills for analyzing conflicts and responding to them with effective communication and negotiation strategies. Where protagonists of world order concern themselves primarily with macro-level, structural issues such as distributive justice and the institutionalization of international cooperation, practitioners of conflict resolution focus more on interaction processes among individuals and groups and the relationships that characterize them.

According to the conflict resolution paradigm, conflict is natural at all levels of human interaction and organization, from the interpersonal to the interethnic and international. Although it can cause estrangement and great human suffering, conflict does not inevitably lead to violence. It is often necessary for major relationships and social systems (e.g., the American civil rights movement). Peace, then, is understood as a continuous process of skilfully dealing with and, whenever possible, preventing or transforming conflict. To manage and resolve conflicts effectively, we must become aware of our attitudes towards conflict and our habitual conflict management styles (competitive, collaborative, avoidant, submissive, etc.) to attain greater freedom to define our responses in a proactive and coordinated (as opposed to reactive and incoherent) way. Such awareness increases our chances of achieving "win-win" rather than "win-lose" or "lose-lose" solutions. We learn to understand and work with our own emotions, generate openness to more authentic communication, and control processes that might otherwise lead to escalation.

To respond effectively to conflict, conflict resolution theorists and practitioners underscore the importance of cooperative, non-adversarial processes for problem-solving and relationship building, which are often conducted with the assistance of an external third party or mediator. These processes direct attention to underlying interests and human needs (e.g., security, identity, bonding, control, development) beneath superficial positions and demands and highlight the significance of culture in human interactions. They affirm the importance of empathy, creativity, and "shared positive power" ("power with" rather than "power over") in all conflict resolution processes, whether between individuals, groups, or states. They also underscore the potentially positive role of non-official processes of dialogue and engagement in today's major international conflicts, most of which involve powerful feelings of ethnic and communal identity.  Then, proponents of the conflict resolution paradigm approach peace through direct interaction with the "other." "If you want peace," they suggest, "train for the processes of peace. Develop skills for communication and coexistence."

4. NONVIOLENCE: PEACE THROUGH WILLPOWER

One of the most common misconceptions about the fourth approach to peace, nonviolence, is that it is a paradigm that enjoins passivity. From the standpoint of nonviolence activists, this assumption reflects the dominance of power politics assumptions, which equate power with the ability to hurt and therefore regard it as the exclusive possession of governments and armed militant groups. In response, the nonviolence paradigm proposes that the power of any government derives primarily from the consent of the people and only secondarily from coercion. By consenting to any given state of affairs and operating within the framework of norms that it offers, human beings empower that order and, if its norms are dehumanizing, disempower and dehumanize themselves. Alternatively, by defining their behaviour as moral agents irrespective of external norms and pressures, they may become agents of change who can awaken others to new possibilities.

Like Gandhi, Martin Luther King, Jr., and many others have underscored, nonviolence is action animated by principle and informed by the proposition that means and ends are inseparable. Rhetoric about the ends of social change must always correspond with the actual effects of the means that have been chosen to advance these ends. Peace between human communities cannot be achieved through violence, nor can democracy be secured through armed insurrection within a society. Peace, then, cannot be disconnected from justice, and justice entails an absence of oppression, whether perpetrated indirectly by inequitable structures and institutions or directly through the use of weapons. In other words, peace entails an absence of violence, broadly conceived as an avoidable insult to human needs (and, we might add, to the balance of (nature). Genuine peace can only be attained through peaceful (and therefore just and nonviolent) means of action-actions that seek to undo conditions that degrade human beings and to break cycles of retaliation that cheapen the value of human life.

The paradigm inspired by nonviolence maintains that, in situations defined by unjust laws or oppression, change may be sought by steadfast, principled measures (Satyagraha--"clinging to truth") through which individuals with shared commitments refuse to participate in any actions that they deem unjust and immoral. These measures may take many forms, from symbolic protests to boycotts, parallel institutions, and direct nonviolent intervention. Actions taken to promote nonviolent change are intended to initiate a process for realizing shared objectives and to invite a response--be it cooperative or repressive--from the society or governing authority. By refusing to dehumanize their adversary even in the face of repression or provocation, nonviolent activists empower themselves to work in creative ways rather than enter into the destructive, "eye-for-an-eye" behaviours that, as Gandhi put it, "leave the whole world blind." Instead, by overcoming their fear and anger, they offer others a new way of seeing the reality around them and deny legitimacy to institutions and actions that violate the human community and ahimsa's principle ("no harm').

According to the nonviolence paradigm, genuine power derives from willpower and human solidarity rather than violence, undermining community and sowing the seeds of its destruction. Nonviolence offers an approach to peacemaking used to counteract forms of social discrimination and political repression and resist foreign imperialism or occupation.  "If you want peace," assert nonviolence activists, "work for justice--justly." This commitment to work for peace by peaceful means through training, strategic planning, Constructive programs, and personal discipline implies a revolution of the human spirit and points to the possibility of a shift in human consciousness in which ahimsa becomes a way of life: transformation.

5. TRANSFORMATION: PEACE THROUGH THE POWER OF LOVE

The final approach to peacemaking investigated in the peace paradigms course is the transformation paradigm. This paradigm focuses on the centrality of education, cultural change, and spirituality in genuine attempts to make peace a reality in daily life. From the standpoint of the transformation paradigm, peacemaking is not only an effort to end the war, remove structural violence, or establish the presence of external value conditions. It is also a profoundly internal process in which the transformation of the individual becomes a metaphor for and instrument of broader changes. Transformation involves cultivating a peaceful consciousness and character, together with an affirmative belief system and skills through which the fruits of "internal disarmament" and personal integration may be expressed. Transformation unites doing with being, a task with experience. Inner freedom is felt in the midst of the action, and sacred ideals are personalized for application by the individual. Peaceful behaviour is learned behaviour, and each individual is a potential and needed contributor to a culture of peace.

From the standpoint of the transformation paradigm, spirituality implies insight into the deep interconnectedness and sacredness of all levels and compartments of reality. It is innate to the person and may be understood as a universal human "attempt to grow in sensitivity to self, to others, to non-human creations and to God" that recognizes and seeks to accommodate the divine's presence in all actions relations. Recognition of this divine presence and claim begets spontaneous loyalty, which cannot be restricted by religion, race, class, or gender boundaries. This universal loyalty, in turn, inspires actions born of loving commitment to the wholeness and integrity of creation. The personal has become political in the most creative and inclusive sense possible, as we seek to make public life reflect non-partisan spiritual value. We become present in the moment, yet responsible for a shared and hopeful future inspired by the injunction, "If you want peace, be peace. Be an instrument of peace."

Taken together, these five paradigms-power politics, world order, conflict resolution, nonviolence, and transformation--attest that the paths to peace are many and that they are travelled not only by statesmen and diplomats but also by advocates, educators, volunteers, and many other varieties of "ordinary" citizens. By exploring each paradigm, we learn to wrestle with our assumptions more actively and evaluate claims in the light of our full range of experiences. We exercise both our reasoning faculties and our intuitive sense of what is "right," "real," and "true." In such a manner, we make peace a more integral aspect of our lives and become more aware of the homes we have built for our moral imaginations. We prepare to lay the foundation for our own unique and original peace paradigm--a structure built of precepts and practices of our choosing.

APPLICATIONS OF NONVIOLENT ACTION

Nonviolent struggle can be used in various circumstances for a variety of objectives. These include:

Dismantling dictatorships

Blocking coups d’état

Defending against foreign invasions and occupations

Providing alternatives to violence in extreme ethnic conflicts

Challenging unjust social and economic systems

Developing, preserving, and extending democratic practices, human rights, civil liberties, and freedom of religion.

Resisting genocide

Questions for Reflection and Discussion

What does nonviolence mean to you? What is your commitment like?

What are the applications of nonviolent action?

How does nonviolent action work?

What are the ways that nonviolent action can produce change?

What are the roles of Buddhist monks in nonviolent action?

Does nonviolent action require any religious beliefs to be used effectively? If yes, how is it used in Cambodia? If not, how is it used in Cambodia?

What successful strategies have nonviolent movements been used by Cambodian monks and people in the past?

How can activists be helped to locate their particular actions as part of an ongoing campaign?

6.2 SOCIAL FUNCTIONS TRADITIONALLY PERFORMED BY RELIGIOUS ACTORS

Social scientists have highlighted a variety of modes of intervention of religion in society and functions it can carry out:

A function of mobilization (in a conflict, but also for peace). Religious actors contribute, in particular, to shaping people's views of the world and their basic values.

A function of socialization through education and training, both at the level of the elites, in particular for well-established religions, and the poor.

A function of integration of those excluded by the society, in particular through humanitarian aid and socio-economic development projects, "something that directly contributes to the rebuilding of the socio-economic fabric of a post-war society.

A function of substitution for political and partisan-type organizations, particularly in times of crisis or closure of the political space. This function is often allied to a role of the popular forum and/or political advocate (in particular on topics related to the respect of human rights).

Engagement. "Socially engaged Buddhism" has application to a wide variety of general human rights issues, such as antiviolence and environmental concerns, but also to the lives of individual Buddhists. The greatest challenge for socially engaged Buddhism in the West is organization. In the early 2000s, it was far less developed in its organizational patterns and strategies than its Christian or Jewish counterparts. Nonetheless, an exciting array of activities could be documented in the records of the individual American Buddhist communities.

The task for New Buddhism is to bring the enlightened vision into the light of day by transforming vision into action in the real world. Every person has at least a glimpse of some bit. Each worker on this building site may not have the whole plan, but everybody does have a piece of it. The love and compassion that they find in their own heart represent that piece. If we act on that, although the individual may not have the whole plan yet, the jigsaw pieces will gradually add up. If you take part in the attempt wholeheartedly, one day, when you least expect it, the whole pattern will suddenly become clear. That is Buddhist mysticism.

Engagement inspires vision, and vision inspires engagement. Going forth makes us realize how much work we have to do upon ourselves. Doing work upon ourselves inspires us to go forth. Mystical experience does not come from chasing after it. It comes as a by-product of carrying out the Buddha’s original intention to the best of one’s ability. If we do so, the larger picture will, in due course, dawn upon us. Everybody can have a part in this. However, those who wish to do it wholeheartedly should not be lulled into thinking it is an easy road. The ego is not built for nothing. The world beyond the ego is a much higher energy proposition.

METHOD OF SOCIALLY ENGAGED BUDDHIST

Socially engaged Buddhism requires us to draw on the many aspects of human experience; our emotional, cognitive, intuitive, visceral aspects need space within any learning environment. This presents a challenge for the retreat leader or event facilitator to draw on all these aspects. Sometimes referred to as a holistic approach, there are various ways that these aspects can be drawn out. The article Socially engaged Buddhism method storytelling, deep listening, structural analysis, and a gallery walk are all described as ways to encourage participants to call on all of themselves to cultivate the wisdom and understanding we are seeking in socially engaged Buddhism.

6.3 BUDDHISM: A QUEST FOR UNITY AND PEACE

Johan Galtung

Published by Sarvodaya Book Publishing Services,

41, Lumbini Mawatha, Ratmalana, Sri Lanka

Buddhism and Global Problems

Five spaces with one goal:

SpaceGoal

NatureEcological Balance

HumanEnlightenment

SocialDevelopment

WorldPeace

CultureAdequacy

Buddhism is an effort to extend that compassion to all spheres, all over the world, in its quest for unity. Of course, Buddhism, like any other ideology religion, is symbolic, a part of world culture.

Buddhism has a very explicit doctrine of human enlightenment. Buddhist practice offers a deep understanding of the human-nature interface through vegetarianism and abstinence from drugs of all kinds and harmony with nature.

Buddhism is no doubt long on the micro-level of the person in their immediate surroundings, including the “environment” in the sense of nature; but relatively short on the macro-level of large societies, not to mention world-systems; but equipped with ethical and epistemological insights, a reservoir of wisdom and potential for highly practical insights far from sufficiently utilized in our efforts to come to grips with global problems.

There are two ways to bridge this micro-macro gap: building on doctrine or practice.

Is Buddhist doctrine compatible with reasonable doctrines for world peace, social development, human development, natural balance?

Buddhism's concepts and ways of thinking to facilitate peace, development, and ecological thinking?

If Buddhists practised their doctrine and had many followers worldwide, even if that practice is only at the micro-level (in a sangha, the Buddhist community), what kind of world, society, and nature would we get?

BUDDHISM AND WORLD PEACE

An Introduction to Peace Theory

Peace has to be discussed and understood as peace among nations and as peace within societies, among and within human beings, and certainly with nature. Peace has to be understood in natural, human, social, and world spaces. In all four spaces, there seem to be two common factors that are necessary conditions for peace (diversity between the parts, types, actors) and (symbiosis “the interactive links”).

In nature, diversity and symbiosis would lead to ecological balance. In human beings, diversity and symbiosis would lead to rich, mature human beings, to persons capable of developing several dispositions within themselves and letting them play together. At the social level, diversity and symbiosis would lead to pluralistic, even fascinating societies, not only fragmented into diverse parts but with the parts interacting with each other, constantly evolving. Diversity and symbiosis would lead to active peaceful coexistence between several systems at the world level.

Buddhism and Peace: Twenty strong points

Very basic in Buddhism is the anatta doctrine of no individual, permanent soul, or self.

A consequence of the anatta doctrine is the ahimsa doctrine of non-violence towards all forms of life, including animals (a reason why Buddhists tend to be vegetarians).

Metta Karuna, compassion, ahimsa, non-violence are nevertheless a negative formulation. It means a (not) himsa (violence), although it comes out less negatively in Sanskrit. The formulation is taken from the Pancha Shila with five precepts. All of them were negatively formulated (in addition to abstention from taking life, one should also abstain from stealing, from adultery or sexual misconduct, from lying, and from intoxicating drinks).

Symbiosis – a basic idea of Buddhism is what one might call the collective ethical budget, the idea that Buddhahood is something we reach together,

Diversity – basic in Buddhism is tolerance, first within Buddhism with the famous dictum of the 64,000 sects, a history practically speaking with no “holy office” to protect doctrine, no inquisition, no intra-religious wars. But there is also tolerance of other belief systems, making it possible to combine them with Buddhism to a larger extent.

The doctrine of the middle road is a concrete approach to life. The basic point is “neither too much nor too little,” an approach that will tend to make Buddhists non-fanatic. In attitude and belief, this would also imply a tendency to stay away from extreme positions, making Buddhists, like Quakers, useful as bridge-builders.

The policy of the middle road is a concrete manifestation. In material life, this means neither too little – the basic needs to be satisfied – nor too much – accumulation of excessive riches should be avoided. In the spiritual life, it means neither self-torture nor self-indulgence.

Small is beautiful – if we accept that the type of cooperation needed to move towards Buddhahood, with human beings constantly interacting and helping each other, can only be meaningful in smaller units.

Wholism – Buddhism will have no difficulty thinking and acting in terms of all four spaces, not accepting divisions, human-made, artificial, of the great unity of sentient life. However, Buddhism is at its strongest as a philosophy and practice.

Historically, Buddhism tends to be a populist religion, or belief system, for the people and the broad masses, rather than the upper classes and the power elite.

In Buddhism, there is no division between creator and created – an essential point in the Buddhism unity-of-all, and not the only unity-of-man image of the world. From a peaceful point of view, this means that we have only ourselves to rely upon. A Buddhist does not hope to get peace in return for obedience to a transcendental God as part of His grace.

Closely related – in Buddhism, there is less of a subject-object distinction. We are not only watching the world, but the world is also watching us. We are in it, but also of it.

According to Buddhist thinking, there is impermanence in everything, the anicca doctrine. The world and everything in it are ebbing and flowing, not a rigid structure of global architectonics – but rather like a process based on diversity in a symbiotic interaction.

According to Buddhist thought, this interaction is always two-way. My consciousness is working on the world; the world is shaping my consciousness.

According to Buddhist philosophy, the world is filled with contradictions, the whole approach being highly dialectic.

Buddhist thought is organized like a Buddhist wheel. It is not pyramidal and deductive from the first principles. Of the various ideas, none would be seen as more fundamental than the others.

Buddhist thought is profoundly optimistic. There is a Buddha nature in us if we only realize it and exert ourselves.

The Buddhist view of the process tends to be cyclical, not linear. There is no definite guarantee that things are going well or that they are going badly.

In Buddhist philosophy, the focus is on continual striving and self-improvement.

Finally, there is the ultimate goal of Buddhism in human space – nirvana, which can be seen as some maximum entropy.

Six weak points

Tolerance is good, but Buddhism may also have been led to become too tolerant of highly violent systems of militarism.

Tolerance is good, but Buddhism may also have been too tolerant of systems practising structural violence.

The idea of working in small groups, next to the temple and the tank, in the village, under the guidance of bhikkhu (monk), is beautiful. But the sangha (meditation), the order of the monks, becomes marginalized from the rest of society.

Buddhism may too easily accept that the leadership of a country practices the opposite of Buddhism as long as it gives in return freedom of worship.

The idea of cyclical instead of linear processes accommodates a high amount of fatalism, accepting defeat too easily even if there is no inner capitulation.

Buddhism may easily become ritualistic, ornate, embroidered, and very beautiful. The focus may be on the Buddha as an object of idolatry.

Buddhism and Social Development

Five Points

The Buddha did not say that you shall make society this way or that way. He said something like this, “make any social order you want as long as it is possible to live.”

There has to be a high level of individual freedom both in thought, speech, and action.

The kind of closeness to other human beings that would be a condition for togetherness in the search for enlightenment, through Buddhist ritual and awareness of the collective ethical budget, based on the exchange of merits and demerits, through dialogues on these topics might be stimulated by also doing other things together.

Buddhist thought conversely has a high level of adequacy articulating development in social space in a green direction.

Let people lead Buddhist lives, following the precepts, and there would be neither excessive poverty nor wealth, no large-scale violence, even less crime. Decentralization would come as a consequence of autonomy and self-reliance.

The Roles of Buddhism in the Creation of Unity and Peace

The basic contribution of Buddhism in the creation of peace lies in its absolute rejection of direct violence, the doctrine of ahimsa, of non-violence. The five precepts of the Pancha Shilla are very clear in this regard.

The rule:

to abstain from taking life

to abstain from taking what is not given

to abstain from sensual misconduct

to abstain from false speech

to abstain from toxicants as tending to cloud the mind.

The ahimsa norm is the light of the requirements for peace. To create peace no doubt has to do with eliminating or at least reducing violence. No doubt, Buddhism is a very strong ethical system for peace. But there is a weakness. Strength in personal commitment is combined with a certain weakness in understanding those silent mechanisms of evil, the wrong structures. The world needs Buddhist ethics in the struggle to create peace, and not only among human beings but also with nature – a very strong point in Buddhism. But Buddhism has to confront the real-world issues relevant for peace and enter the struggle – also political struggle. There is no acceptable way of staying permanently outside that struggle. And Buddhism has so much to contribute. Above all, Buddhism sends a message of unity, of all, with all, a very strong basis for peace, indeed.

Questions for Reflection and Discussion

Does Buddhism have teaching adequate to these major problems of our world?

Does Buddhism open or close our eyes to the problems?

Does Buddhism give us a body of thought and practice from which action adequate to our problems would flow easily?

Does Buddhism have a social doctrine? A blueprint for society, for the world?

Does it teach what to do, behave, and aim for in the social and world spaces?

Can Buddhism teach us anything precise and concrete about development and peace?

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GLOSSARY

______________________________________________

Buddha:

The Enlightened or Awakened One. The word 'Bodhi' means to awaken.

Dharma:

Teachings of the Buddha

Enlightenment:

It understands the truth of life, freedom from ignorance.

Five Precepts:

The five rules of conduct given by the Buddha to his disciples: no killing, no stealing, no sexual misconduct, no false speech, no intoxicants.

Four Noble Truths:

The first teachings spoke by the Buddha: the truth of suffering, the cause of suffering, the end of suffering, and the Path leading to the end of suffering.

Karma:

'Action' or the law of cause and effect. For every action, there is a cause.

Noble Eightfold Path:

The Buddha's prescription for ending suffering. It comprises eight parts: right views, right thought, right speech, right action, right livelihood, right effort, right mindfulness, and right concentration.

Sangha:

The community of Buddhist nuns and monks.

Mahayana:

The tradition of Northern Buddhism.

Theravada:

The tradition of Southern Buddhism.

Triple Jewel:

The Buddha, the Dharma, and the Sangha.

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REFERENCES

Following the Buddha's Footsteps: “The Basic Teaching of Buddha,” Instilling Goodness School, City of Ten Thousand Buddhas Talmage, CA 95481.

Mark Shepard’s Gandhi Page at www.markshep.com/non-violence.

The Corporation for National and Community Service, www.MLKDay.gov, NOVEMBER 2006

Abraham H. Maslow, Motivation and Personality, Harper & Row, Publisher, Inc, 1954

John Henry B., Producing The First Parliament Of Religions, http://www.theinterfaithobserver.org/journal-articles/2012/7/15/john-henry-barrows-producing-the-first-parliament-of-religio.html

John Hick, Three Kinds of Interfaith dialogue, http://iicao.org/iic-resources/e-learning/interfaith-dialogue/types-of-interfaith-activity/three-kinds-of-interfaith-dialogue/

Solomon, Norman, Judaism: A Very Short Introduction, Oxford University Press, UK, 2000

Johan Galtung, Published by Sarvodaya Book Publishing Services, 41, Lumbini Mawatha, Ratmalana, Srilanka

Morris, Catherine. "Case Studies in Religion and Peacebuilding: Cambodia." In Religion and Peacebuilding, edited by Harold Coward and Gordon Smith. Albany, New York: SUNY Press, 2004.

NOTES

CHAPTER TWO: ROLE OF BUDDHISM IN CAMBODIAN LIFE

1 Federal Research Division. Russell R. Ross, ed. "Role of Buddhism in Cambodian Life". Cambodia: A Country Study.

2.1 SAMDECH SANGHA RAJA JHOTAÑANO CHUON NATH

1 Verification of the national Khmer song: Cambodian Buddhism, by Ian Harris

2.2 SAMDECH PREAH MAHA GHOSANANDA

1 Harris, Ian (August 2001), "Sangha Groupings in Cambodia", Buddhist Studies Review (UK Association for Buddhist Studies) 18 (I): 65–72. From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

2.3 SOME DILEMMAS OF BUDDHISM

1 An interview with a disillusioned monk by Prah Sokha (with Antonio Graceffo): “Buddhism and the Party Line in Cambodia”, 2007.

2 “Cambodian Buddhism,” Judy Ledgerwood, Professor of Anthropology, Northern Illinois University, DeKalb, Illinois, 2003.

4.3 PRACTICAL INTERFAITH FOR PEACE

1 Interfaith Studies, International interfaith organisations network 2003.

5.2 MARTIN LUTHER KING'S NON-VIOLENT STRUGGLE

1 Source: International Workshop on Non-violent Struggles in the Twentieth Century and their lessons for the Twenty- First, October 5-12, 1999, New Delhi.

6.1 PEACE PARADIGMS: FIVE APPROACHES TO PEACE

1 [Source: Gandhi Marg, October-December 2002, Volume.24, No.3]